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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



A CONCISE 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

WITH EXERCISES 

BY 

GEOEGE LYMAN KITTEEDGE 

'I 
GURNEY PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK EDGAR EARLEY 

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN 
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 



GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO 



COPYRIGHT, 1913, 1918, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE 

AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY 

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 

321.8 






G1NN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



FEB -3 1922 



/,* 



PREFACE 

The favor accorded to ^An Advanced English Grammar' 5 
has led the authors, in response to many requests from' expe- 
rienced teachers, to prepare this brief manual — of similar 
grade — for use in those courses of study which require a 
very concise textbook. 

The plan will appear from the Table of Contents. Part One, 
which may serve either as an introduction or as a preliminary 
review, gives a rapid survey of the Parts of Speech in the 
Sentence and an explanation of their substitutes — the Phrase 
and the Clause. Part Two deals systematically with Inflec- 
tion and Syntax;, and closes with chapters on Clauses as 
Parts of Speech and the Meanings of Subordinate Clauses 
(as expressing time, place, cause, concession, purpose, result, 
condition, comparison, indirect discourse, and indirect ques- 
tion). Particular attention is paid to several matters that 
often give trouble to the student — such as shall and will, 
conditional sentences, and indirectness in assertions and ques- 
tions. Part Three treats of Analysis. An Appendix contains 
Lists of Verbs and Tables of Conjugation. 

The Exercises (pp. 157-208) follow the text in the same 
order of treatment, and references at the head of each, as well 
as parallel references in the Table of Contents, make it easy 
for the teacher to utilize them in connection with the topics 
which they illustrate. This arrangement obviates the necessity 
of interrupting the exposition of grammatical principles at 
every turn, and thus lends to pp. 1-156 a continuity otherwise 
unattainable. The passages selected for parsing, analysis, etc., 



iv PBEFACE 

are, without exception, taken from distinguished British and 
American writers. There is also a good supply of constructive 
exercises, many of which afford practice in avoiding common 
errors of speech. 

The terminology already adopted by the authors in their 
" Advanced English Grammar ;? was found to agree in most 
respects with that recommended by the Joint Committee on 
Grammatical Nomenclature. In the present book the few 
details of divergence have been so adjusted that teachers who 
wish to adopt the Committee's plan in all particulars may 
do so without difficulty, while those who prefer certain old 
established terms will find them in their accustomed places. 
An unusually full Index facilitates this adjustment. 

G. L. K. 

E. E. E. 



CONTENTS 

[The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those in the 
second column to the pages of the Exercises.] 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PART ONE -THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE 

SENTENCE exer. 

TEXT CISES 

General Principles 1 

The Sentence — Subject and Predicate 2 157 

Kinds of Sentences 2 157 

The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 158 

The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 8 158 

Infinitives and Participles 10 159 

Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 12 159 

Compound Subject and Predicate 13 159 

Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 13 160 

Phrases — Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 13 160 

Clauses — Independent and Subordinate 14 161 

Compound and Complex Sentences 14 161 

Compound Complex Sentences 16 162 

Clauses as Parts of Speech . . . .- 17 161 



PART TWO - INFLECTION AND SYNTAX 

CHAPTER I — INFLECTION — NOUNS 

Inflection in General 19 

Classification — Common Nouns and Proper Nouns .... 19 162 

Special Classes — Abstract, Collective, Compound 20 162 

Inflection of Nouns 21 162 

Gender 21 162 

Number 23 16a 

Person 28 

v 



vi CONTENTS 



TEXT 



EXER- 
CISES 



Case 28 164 

Nominative Case 29 164 

Possessive or Genitive Case 30 164 

Objective Case (Accusative and Dative) 33 164 

Parsing of Nouns 39 164 

CHAPTER II — PRONOUNS 

Personal Pronouns 40 166 

Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 41 166 

Case of Personal Pronouns .41 166 

The Self -Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) .... 43 167 

Adjective Pronouns — Demonstratives 44 168 

Adjective Pronouns — Indefinites 45 168 

Relative Pronouns 47 169 

The Relative Pronoun What 51 169 

Compound Relative Pronouns 52 169 

Interrogative Pronouns . . 53 171 

Parsing of Pronouns 54 172 

CHAPTER III — ADJECTIVES 

Classification of Adjectives 55 172 

Adjectives — the Articles 57 173 

Comparison of Adjectives 58 172 

Irregular Comparison 59 172 

CHAPTER IV — ADVERBS AND NUMERALS 

Classification of Adverbs 61 173 

Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 62 174 

Comparison of Adverbs . 63 175 

Use of the Comparative and Superlative 64 175 

Numerals — Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 65 176 

CHAPTER V — VERBS 

Classification of Verbs 67 176 

Auxiliary Verbs — Verb-Phrases 67 176 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 67 176 

Copulative or Linking Verbs 68 176 



CONTENTS vi£ 

,t,™™ EXER- 

TEXT CISES 

Inflection of Verbs 69 177 

Tense of Verbs 69 177 

Present and Past Tenses 70 177 

Regular and Irregular Verbs 70 177 

Person and Number • • • 70 177 

The Personal Endings 71 177 

Conjugation of the Present and the Past 72 177 

Special Rules of Number and Person 73 178 

The Future Tense — Shall and Will 76 179 

Complete or Compound Tenses 78 181 

Voice — Active and Passive 79 181 

Conjugation of the Six Tenses 80 181 

Use of the Passive Voice 82 181 

Progressive Verb-Phrases 84 183; 

Emphatic Verb-Phrases 86 183 

Mood of Verbs 86 183 

Indicative Mood 87 18£ 

Imperative Mood 87 183 

Subjunctive Mood — Forms 89 183 

Uses of the Subjunctive 90 183 

Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 93 185 

Special Rules for Should and Would 96 186 

The Infinitive 101 188 

The Infinitive as a Noun 102 188 

The Infinitive as a Modifier 103 188 

The Infinitive Clause 104 189 

Participles — Forms and Constructions 106 190 

Nominative Absolute 109 191 

Verbal Nouns in -ing (Participial Nouns) 110 191 

CHAPTER VI — PREPOSITIONS 

List of Prepositions 113 192' 

Special Uses of Prepositions 114 192. 

CHAPTER VII — CONJUNCTIONS 

Coordinate (or Coordinating) Conjunctions 115 192 

Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions 116 192. 

Correlative Conjunctions 117 192 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII — INTERJECTIONS _,„ exer- 

TEXT CISES 

Interjections 118 193 

Exclamatory Expressions 118 193 

CHAPTER IX — CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH 

Clauses as Parts of Speech 119 193 

Adjective Clauses 119 193 

Adverbial Clauses 119 193 

Noun (or Substantive) Clauses 120 194 

CHAPTER X — THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

Clauses of Place and Time 122 194 

Causal Clauses 123 194 

Concessive Clauses 123 194 

Clauses of Purpose and Result 124 195 

Conditional Sentences (the Conditional Complex) 125 195 ■ 

Eorms of Conditions 127 195 

Present and Past Conditions 127 195 

future Conditions 128 195 

Clauses of Comparison 129 196 

Indirect Discourse 130 197 

.Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Discourse . . 132 198 

Indirect Questions 132 199 

.Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Questions . . 134 200 

PART THREE -ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER I — THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE — 
MODIFIERS 

Analysis — the Elements of the Sentence 135 201 

Modifiers in General . . 136 202 

Modifiers of the Subject 136 202 

Modifiers of the Predicate 138 203 

CHAPTER II — COMPLEMENTS 

Use of Complements 141 204 

The Direct Object 142 204 



CONTENTS ix 

_____ EXER~ 
TEXT CISES 

The Predicate Objective 142 204 

The Predicate Nominative 142 204 

The Predicate Adjective 143 204 

CHAPTER III — MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF 
MODIFIERS 

Modifiers of Complements 144 204 

Modifiers of Other Modifiers 145 205 

CHAPTER IV — INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

Four Kinds of Independent Elements 147 205 

Parenthetical Expressions 147 205 

CHAPTER V — ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

Simple Sentences 148 206 

Compound Sentences 149 206 

Complex Sentences 150 206 

Compound and Complex Clauses 152 206 

Compound Complex Sentences 153 206 

CHAPTER VI — ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 155 207 

Examples of Elliptical Constructions 155 207 

Varieties of Ellipsis 156 207 

EXERCISES 

PAGE 

Exercises on Part One 157 

Exercises on Part Two 162 

Exercises on Part Three 201 

APPEXDIX 

Lists of Verbs 209 

Conjugation of the Verb to be 218 

Conjugation of the Verb to strike 219 

Index 223 



ENGLISH GRAMMAE 

PART ONE 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN 
THE SENTENCE 



1. Words are the signs of ideas. The meanings of these 
signs are settled by custom or tradition. Spoken words are 
signs made with the vocal organs ; written words are signs 
made with the pen to represent the spoken words. 

Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or 
written words. 

Most words are the signs of definite ideas : as, — Charles, 
captain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless. 

Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect 
the more definite words and to show their relations to each 
other in connected speech : as, — from, in, and, but, if. 

2. The relation in which a word stands to other words in 
connected speech is called its construction, and the orderly 
system of constructions in language is called syntax. 

Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating 
some change in v its meaning : as, — boy, boy's ; man, men ; 
drink, drank. 

Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the construc- 
tions of words. 

The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage, 
— that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated 
speakers and writers. 

1 



2 THE SENTENCE 

THE SENTENCE — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete 
thought. 

4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or ex- 
clamatory. 

1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact. 

Eire burns. 

Rain is falling. 

The army approached the city. 

2. An interrogative sentence asks a question. 

Who is that officer ? 

Does Arthur Moore live here ? 

3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. 

Open the window. 

Pronounce the vowels more distinctly. 

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other 
emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry. 

How calm the sea is ! 

What a noise the engine makes ! 

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is 
also exclamatory if it is uttered in an excited tone. 

Note. All sentences, then, are either exclamatory or non -exclamatory. Simi- 
larly, a sentence of any class may be either affirmative or negative (i. e. " deny- 
ing "). Thus, — " Tom rides well " (affirmative declarative) ; " Tom does not 
ride well " (negative declarative) ; " Go home " (affirmative imperative) ; " Do 
not go home " (negative imperative). This distinction, however, must not be 
pressed too far, for a sentence that is affirmative in form may be negative in 
meaning and vice versa. Thus, " What is left us but despair? " is equivalent 
to "Nothing is left" etc.; and "Are you not sorry?" often means in effect, 
" Of course you are sorry." 

5. Every sentence consists of two parts, — a subject and a predicate. 
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that 
is spoken of ; the predicate is that which is said of the subject. 

Thus, in the first example in § 4, the subject is fire and the predicate 
is burns. In the second, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In 
the third, the subject is the army ; the predicate, approached the city. 



THE PAETS OF SPEECH 3 

6. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is 
almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker 
and hearer without being expressed. 

Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both 
speaker and hearer, are said to be ff understood." Thup, in "Open the 
window," the subject is "you (understood)." If expressed, the subject 
would be emphatic : as, — "You open the window." 

7. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predi- 
cate, but sometimes the predicate precedes. 

Here comes Tom. 
Over went the carriage. 

A sentence in which the whole or a part of the predicate 
precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order. This 
order is especially common in interrogative sentences. 

How goes the world with you ? 



THE PAKTS OF SPEECH 

8. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided 
into eight classes called parts of speech, — namely, nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. 

I. NOUNS 

9. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

Examples : Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, Chicago, island, star, 
window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss. 

n. PRONOUNS 

10. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a 
person, place, or thing without naming it. 

In "I am ready," the pronoun J is a convenient substitute for the 
speakers name. In " You have forgotten your umbrella,'" the pronouns 
you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking. 

Other pronouns are : he, his, him ; she, hers, her ; it, its ; this, that ; 
who, whose, v:hom, which, what ; myself, yourself, himself, themselves. 



4 SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES 

11. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. 

Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference is 
merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, 
and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence the general 
term substantive is employed to include both nouns and pronouns. 

12. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 

Frank followed his father. [Frank is the antecedent of his.] 
Eleanor is visiting her aunt. 
The book has lost its cover. 
The trappers sat round their camp fire. 

Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. 
[Their has two antecedents, connected by and.] 



III. ADJECTIVES 

13. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive. 1 

This it usually does by indicating some quality. 

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes 
or limits. 

Little strokes fell great oaks. 

14. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the 
range of its meaning. 

The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we 
say "wooden box," we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use 
a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the 
shape of the box. 

Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as 
well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives. 

We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen 
by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not 
describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are 
called definitive or limiting adjectives. 

1 In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to describe 
a substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes. 



VEEBS 



IV. VERBS 

15. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) 
concerning a person, place, or thing. 1 

The wind blows. Her jewels sparkled. 

The horses ran. Tom climbed a tree. 

The fire blazed. The dynamite exploded. 

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action. 

The treaty still exists. Near the church stood an elm. 

The book lies on the table. My aunt suffers much from headache. 

16. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single 
verb, to make an assertion. 

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. 

You will see. We might have invited her. 

The tree has fallen. Our driver has been discharged. 

17. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are 
called auxiliary (that is, " aiding ") verbs, because they help 
other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind. 

Thus, in " You will see," the auxiliary verb will helps see to express 
future action ; in ?f We might have invited her," the auxiliaries might and 
have help invited to express action that was possible in past time. 

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were), may, can, must, 
might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. 

The auxiliary verb comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be 
separated from the rest of it by some other word or words. 

Where was Washington born ? 

The boat was slowly but steadily approaching. 

You must never be discouraged. 

18. 7s (in its various forms) and several other verbs may 
be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in 
the predicate describe or define the subject. 

1 The usual brief definition of a verb is, "A verb is a word which asserts. " 
But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences. 



6 ADVERBS 

1. Gold is a metal. 

2. Charles is my friend's name. 

3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant. 

4. Iron becomes red in the fire. 

5. Our condition seemed desperate. 

6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency. 

7. My soul grows sad with troubles. — Shakspere. 

In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it 
also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in 
such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold. In 
sentences 4-7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used. 

In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the 
same purpose are called copulative or linking verbs. 1 

The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the 
commonest are : am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases 
has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be. 2 



V. ADVERBS 

19. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. 

To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. 
Thus, in ff The river fell rapidly," the adverb rapidly modifies the verb 
fell by showing how the falling took place. In fr I am never late," ff This 
is absolutely true, 1 ' ff That is too bad," the italicized words are adverbs 
modifying adjectives; in ff He came very often," ff He spoke almost 
hopefully," ff The river fell too rapidly," they are adverbs modifying 
other adverbs. 

Most adverbs answer the question w How ? " " When ? " 

w Where ? v or u To what degree or extent ? w 

The officer was severely reprimanded. 

They sailed north. 

The wind continued to blow hard. 

He went out immediately and away he walked. — Defoe. 

1 Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the " joiner " or " link." 

2 For full inflection, see pp. 218-219. 



PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 7 

20. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same 
way in which adjectives modify nouns. 

Adjectives Adverbs 

A brigJU fire burned. The fire burned brightly. 

A fierce wind blew. The wind blew fiercely . 

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of 
another word is called a modifier. 

Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives 
modify substantives ; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or 
other adverbs. 

VI. PREPOSITIONS 

21. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its 
relation to some other word in the sentence. 

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object. 

A preposition is said to govern its object. 

In ff The surface of the w r ater glistened," of makes it clear that sur- 
face belongs with water. In "Philip is on the river," on shows Philip's 
position with respect to the river, In, or near, or beyond would have 
indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, 
and river is the object of the preposition on. 

22. A preposition often has more than one object. Thus, — 
" Over hill and dale he ran." 

VII. CONJUNCTIONS 

23. A conjunction connects words or groups of words. 

A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, 
and in indicating a less definite relation between the words 
which it connects. 

In "Time and tide wait for no man," "The parcel was small but 
heavy," " He wore a kind of doublet or jacket," the conjunctions and, 
but. or, connect single words, — time with tide, small with heavy, doublet 
with jacket. In "Do not go z/you are afraid," "I came because you sent 
for me," " Take my key, but do not lose it," each conjunction connects 
the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it. 



8 DIFFEBENT PAETS OF SPEECH 

VIII. INTERJECTIONS 

24. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing 
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. 

Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with 
the groups of words in which they stand ; hence their name, 
which means " thrown in." 

Examples : Oh! I forgot. Ah, how I miss you ! Bravo ! Alas! 

THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 

25. The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes 
another. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what 
part of speech it belongs. 

26. The chief classes of words thus variously used are 
(1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives 
and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and 
prepositions. 

I. Nouns and Adjectives 
Nouns Adjectives 

Rubber comes from South America. This wheel has a rubber tire. 

That brick is yellow. Here is a brick house. 

The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merchant lives here. 

The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns 
may be used as adjectives ; the third shows how words that are 
commonly adjectives may be used as nouns. 

II. Nouns and Verbs 
Nouns Verbs 

Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows. 

Give me a stamp. Stamp this envelope. 

It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief. 

Other examples are : act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, 
close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, 
sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound. 



DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 9 

III. Adjectives and Adverbs 

Adjectives Adverbs 

That is 2ifast boat. The snow is melting fast. 

Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight. 

Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early. 

For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 190. 

IV. ADJECTIVE6 AND PRONOUNS 

Adjectives Pronouns 

This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant. 

That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo. 

Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each. 

For further study of this class of words, see pp. 44-47. 

V. Adverbs and Prepositions 

Adverbs Prepositions 

Jill came tumbling after. He returned after the accident. 

We went below. Below us lay the valley. 

The weeds sprang up. We walked up the hill. 

Other examples are : aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath. 

Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following: — 

Noun. The calm lasted for three days. 

Adjective. Calm words show quiet minds. 
Verb. Calm your angry friend. 

Other examples are : iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, 
light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring. 

Noun. , Wrong seldom prospers. 

Adjective. You have taken the wrong road. 

Adverb. Edward often spells words wrong. 

Verb. You wrong me by your suspicions. 

Noun. The outside of the castle is gloomy. 

Adjective. We have an outside stateroom. 

Adverb. The messenger is waiting outside. 

Preposition. I shall ride outside the coach. 



10 INFINITIVES AND PAETICIPLES 

Noun. Sheep were feeding on the down. 

Adjective. This is a down grade. 

Adverb. We must go down. 

Preposition. The stream runs down the valley. 

Adjective. That boat is a sloop. 

Pronoun. That is my uncle. 

Conjunction. You said that you would help me. 

Adjective. Neither road leads to Utica. 

Pronoun. Neither of us arrived in time. 

Conjunction. Neither Tom nor I was late. 

Preposition. I am waiting for the train. 

Conjunction. You have plenty of time, for the train is late. 

Interjection. Hurrah ! the battle is won. 

Noun. I heard a loud hurrah. 

Verb. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 

27. Two classes of verb-forms really belong to different 
parts of speech, at one and the same time. These are the 
infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which 
is both verb and adjective). 

28. Each of the following sentences contains an infinitive : 

To struggle was useless. 
To escape is impossible. 
To exercise regularly preserves the health. 

To struggle is a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and 
(2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. 
Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape, and regular 
exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) for to exercise regularly. 

But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also 
verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified 
by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the 
verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives. 

29. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a 
noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the 
sign of the infinitive. 



INFINITIVES AND PAKTICIPLES 11 

30. The infinitive without to is much used in verb-phrases. 

I shall go. Mary may recite. 

John will win. Jack can swim. 

Such phrases will be studied with the inflection of verbs. 

Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by com- 
paring the following sentences: — " I intend to go," " John is sure to win," 
*' Mary is permitted to recite," " Jack is able to swim." 

31. The following sentence contains two participles : — 

Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea. 

We recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as 
a form of the verb sink ; both express action, and sinking is modified by 
the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of 
adjectives, for they describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are 
adjective forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are 
called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature 
of adjectives. 

32. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which 
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in 
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive. 

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it 
describes or limits. 

33. The chief classes of participles are present participles and 
past participles, so called from the time which they denote. 

All present participles end in ing. Past participles have 
various forms, which will be studied in connection with the 
inflection of verbs (§ 325). 

34. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases. 

Tom is coming. Your book is found. 

The drums are beating. The jewels are lost. 

Our boat was wrecked. They have sold their horses. 

I have sent the money. You have broken your watch. 

He has brought me a letter. The ship had struck on the reef. 

Such phrases will be studied with the inflection of verbs. 



J.2 SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE 

"SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

35. A sentence may consist of but two words, — a noun or 
pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus, — 

Charles | swims. 

Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or 
both, will contain more than one word. Thus, — 
Young Charles | swims slowly. 

Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun 
(Charles) and an adjective (young), which describes Charles. 
The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb 
(slowly), which modifies swims by indicating how the action 
is performed. 

The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb (swims) 
are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be 
omitted without destroying it. They form the frame or skele- 
ton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective 
or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying 
the sentence ; for this would still exist as the expression of 
a thought (Charles swims), though the thought would be less 
definite and exact. 

36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. It may 
be called the subject substantive. 

The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase. It may 
be called the predicate verb. 

The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its 
meaning, forms the complete subject. 

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its 
meaning, forms the complete predicate. 

In each of the following sentences the complete subject and 
the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the 
simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics : — 

The spider \ spreads her web. 

The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 13 

The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in 
favor of the Governor General. 

The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an 
estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire. 

I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse. 

37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one 
compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to make 
one compound predicate. 

1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well. 

2. Frances and she | are friends. 

3. Hats, caps, boots, and gloves \ were piled together in confusion. 

4. The watch | sank and was lost. 

5. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared. 

6. He | neither smiled nor frowned. 

7. Snow and ice \ covered the ground and made our progress difficult. 

38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple 
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound. 

In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles and Henry) 
are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the 
third, four substantives (hats, caps, boots, gloves) form a series in which the 
last two are joined by and. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth, the predicates 
are compound ; in the seventh, both the subject and the predicate. 

39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the mem- 
bers of a compound subject or predicate : and (both . . . and), 
or (either . . . or ; whether . . . or), nor (neither . . . nor). 

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH 
PHRASES 

40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech. 

The Father of Waters is the Mississippi. 
A girl with blue eyes stood at the window. 
You are looking well. 

The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something. 
With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective {blue-eyed), and modifies 
girl. At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, 
and modifies stood. Are looking could be replaced by the verb look. 



14 PHRASES AND CLAUSES 

41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a 
predicate, is called a phrase. 

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech. 

A phrase is a noun-phrase, a verb-phrase, an adjective phrase, or 
an adverbial phrase, according as it is used as a noun, a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

In the examples in § 40, the Father of Waters is a noun-phrase ; vrith 
blue eyes, an adjective phrase ; at the window, an adverbial phrase ; are 
looking, a verb-phrase. 

42. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its 
object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases. 

Your umbrella is in the corner. 

He has a heart of oak. 

A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf. 

My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap. 

Men with red blood in their veins are needed in this emergency. 



CLAUSES — COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

43 . Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses. 
The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predi- 
cate and a phrase does not. 

44. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
that contains a subject and a predicate. 

The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared. 
The train started | when the bell rang. 

Each of these sentences contains two clauses ; but the relation 
between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from 
that between the clauses in the second. 

In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a sepa- 
rate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a 
simple sentence, — that is, as a sentence having but one subject 
and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunc- 
tion and, which is not a part of either. ]STo doubt the speaker 



COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 15 

feels that there is some relation in thought between the two 
statements, or he would not have put them together as clauses 
in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of 
expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the 
two clauses are grammatically independent, for neither of them 
modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses 
are therefore said to be coordinate, — that is, of the same 
w order " or rank, and the sentence is called compound. 

In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between 
the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (the 
train started) makes the main statement, — it expresses the 
chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause. 
The other clause (when the bell rang) is added because the 
speaker wishes to modify the main verb (started) by defining 
the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a part of 
speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly) 
or an adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the bell). For this 
purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. 
Hence it is called a dependent (or subordinate) clause, because it 
depends (that is, w hangs ") upon the main clause, and so occu- 
pies a lower or " subordinate w rank in the sentence. When 
thus constructed, a sentence is said to be complex. 

45. An ordinary compound sentence (as we have seen in § 44) 
is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of 
which thus becomes an independent coordinate clause. 

In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences, 
using them as clauses to make one compound sentence : — 

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the 
last car disappeared. 

This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two 
coordinate clauses (the train started ivhen the bell rang ; Tom 
watched until the last car disappeared) joined by and. Each 
of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by 
itself as a complex sentence. 



16 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES 

Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as 
coordinate clauses to make a compound sentence. 

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in 
despair. 

Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in 
which one or more of the coordinate clauses are complex, is 
called a compound complex sentence. 1 

46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
that contains a subject and a predicate. 

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All 
other clauses are said to be independent. 

Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coordinate. 

Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex. 

1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or 
both of which may be compound. 

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coor- 
dinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions. 

3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which 
is independent and the rest subordinate. 

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coordinate clauses 
are complex is called a compound complex sentence. 

I. Simple Sentences 
Iron rusts. 
George V is king. 
The rain washed the earth clean. 

Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.] 
The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.] 
Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both 
subject and predicate are compound.] 

II. Compound Sentences 

Shakspere was born in 1564 ; he died in 1616. [Two coordinate 
clauses ; no conjunction.] 

A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the 
conjunction and.] 

1 Compound complex sentences are also called complex compound sentences. 
For further study, see pp. 153-154. 



CLAUSES 17 

You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by or.] 

James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved 
it. [Two clauses joined by but.] 

We would have hired a guide, but none of the mountaineers would 
go with us. 

Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach 
me. [Two clauses joined by either . . . or.] ( 

The following conjunctions may be used to join coordinate 
clauses: — and (both . . . and), or (either . . . or), nor (neither 
. . . nor), but, for. 

III. Complex Sentences 
Examples will be found in §§ 48-50. 

Clauses as Parts of Speech 

47. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. 
They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs. 

1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or 
substantive) clause. 

2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an 
adjective clause. 

3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called 
an adverbial clause. 

48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses. 

Success \ ■ • k hi 

That we should succeed in this plan j 

The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it 
is more fully expressed. In the first, the subject is the noun success; in 
the second, the subject is the noun clause, that we should succeed in this 
plan. This clause is introduced by the conjunction that; the simple 
subject of the clause is the pronoun we, and the simple predicate is 
the verb-phrase should succeed. The first sentence is simple ; the second 
is complex. 

Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction 
that. 



18 CLAUSES 

49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illus- 
trate the use ef (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an 
adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun. 

An honorable man *} 

A man of honor ^ will not lie. 

A man who values his honor J 

My native land ^ 

The land of my birth y lies far across the sea. 

The land where I was born J 

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third 
is complex. 

50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences 
illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, 
(3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb 
(or verb-phrase). 

f here. 
The lightning struck «; on this spot. 

i. where we stand. 

f punctually. 
The game began ^ on the stroke of one. 
[when the clock struck. 

( conditionally. 
The banker will make the loan<( on one condition. 

L if you endorse my note. 

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third 
is complex. 

51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pro- 
nouns who, which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where, 
whence, whither, when. 

Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs 
where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, hoiv, 
as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if 
that (in order that, so that), lest, etc. 



PART TWO 
INFLECTION AND SYNTAX 

CHAPTER I 

INFLECTION - NOUNS 

52. Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change 
in its meaning. A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected. 

A word may be inflected (1) by the addition of a final letter or sylla- 
ble (dog, dogs ; hunt, hunted), (2) by the change of a letter (man, men), or 
(3) by a complete change of form (good, better, best). 

The inflection of a substantive is called its declension; that 
of an adjective or an adverb, its comparison ; that of a verb, 
its conjugation. 

NOUNS 
CLASSIFICATION — COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS 

53. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 

54. Nouns are divided into two classes — proper nouns and common 
nouns. 

1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing: 
— Lincoln, Ruth, Alps, Denver, Amazon, Monday, Christmas. 

2. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a 
class of persons, places, or things : — clerk, street, town, desk, tree, 
eloud, chimney, childhood, idea, thought, letter, dynamo, cruiser. 

Proper nouns begin with a capital letter $ common nouns 
usually begin with a small letter. 

19 



20 NOUNS 

55. A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as 
the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc. 

Nelson's flagship was the Victory. 
Give me this evening's Herald. 
My spaniel's name was Sport. 

A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are 
perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech: as, — James Russell Lowell, 
Washington Elm, Eiffel Tower, Firth of Clyde, North Lexington Junction, 
Stony Brook. 

56. A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a 

name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects. 

Lend me your Webster. 

The museum owns two Rembrandts and a Titian. ■ 

Certain proper nouns, when used in a special sense, have become common 
nouns and generally begin with a small letter : as, — macadam (crushed stone 
for roads, so called from Macadam, the inventor), mackintosh (a waterproof 
garment), napoleon (a coin), guinea (twenty-one shillings). 

57. A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human 
quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person. 

This usage is called personification, and the object, animal, or 
quality is said to be personified. 

Each old poetic Mountain 
Inspiration breathed around. — Gray. 

Smiles on past Misfortune's brow 

Soft Reflection's hand can trace, 
And o'er the cheek of Sorrow throw 

A melancholy grace. — Gray. 

The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper 
noun and is usually written with a capital letter. 

58. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea : — 
blackness, length, beauty, precision, terror, elegance, thrift, persever- 
ance, lunacy, egotism, fidelity, recklessness. 

59. A collectire noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, 
and not of a single person, place, or thing : — crowd, squadron, sheaf, 
Associated Press, Gulf Steamship Company, senior class. 



SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS 21 

Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality 
or idea is personified (§ 57). Collective nouns may be either proper or common. 
The same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings, collective in another. 

They believe in fraternity. [Abstract.] 
The student joined & fraternity. [Collective.] 
We enjoy the society of our friends. [Abstract.] 
This society was founded in 1724. [Collective.]^ 

60. A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a com- 
pound noun: — (1) common nouns, — tablecloth, sidewalk, fireman, 
knife-edge, brother-in-law ; (2) proper nouns, — Johnson, Elkhorn, 
Stratf ord-on-A von, Lowell Junction. 

The parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without 
a hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in 
others it varies. 

Note. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after 
the manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either 
(1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus 
railway conductor may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (conductor) 
limited by an adjective (railway). 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS 

61. In the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to 
consider gender, number, person, and case. 

I. GENDER 

62. Gender is distinction according to sex. Nouns and pronouns may 
be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender. 

1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine 
gender : as, — Joseph, boy, cockerel, buck, footman, he. 

2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine 
gender : as, — girl, Julia, hen, waitress, doe, squaw, she. 

3. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the 
neuter gender : as, — pencil, light, water, star, book, dust, leaf, it. 

A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and some- 
times feminine is often said to be of common gender: as, — bird, 
artist, cat, Turk, musician. 



22 



NOUNS 



63. A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by 
personification (§ 57). 

Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams 
The blue Mediterranean. — Shelley. 

Stern daughter of the Voice of God ! 
Duty ! — Wordsworth. 

O Music ! sphere-descended maid, 

Friend of Pleasure, Wisdom's aid. — Collins. 

64. A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it 
stands or to which it refers. 

Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender : 
— he, his, him (masculine) ; she) her, hers (feminine) ; it, its 
(neuter). 

All other pronouns vary in gender. 

Bobert greeted his employer. [Masculine.] 

A mother passed with her child. [Feminine.] 

This tree has lost its foliage. [Neuter.] 

Who laughed ? Was it you ? [Masculine or feminine.] 

65. The gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be 
shown in various ways. 

1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of 
living beings are denoted by different words. 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


father 


mother 


gander 


goose 


husband 


wife 


drake 


duck 


uncle 


aunt 


cock 


hen 


king 


queen 


ram 


ewe 


monk 


nun 


bull 


cow 


wizard 


witch 


hart 


hind 


lord 


lady 


buck 


doe 


horse 


mare 


fox 


vixen 



2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition 
of an ending. 







GENDER 




ASCULIKE 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


heir 


heiress 


executor 


executrix 


baron 


baroness 


administrator 


administratrix 


lion 


lioness 


hero 


heroine 


prince 


princess 


sultan 


sultana 


emperor 


empress 


Philip 


Philippa 



23 



Note. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess. Fre- 
quently the corresponding masculine form ends in or or er: as, — actor, 
actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. 

3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition 
of an ending. Thus, — widow, widower ; bride, bridegroom. 

4. Gender may be indicated by the. ending man, woman, 
maid, boy, or girl: — salesman, saleswoman, milkmaid, cash 
boy, cash girl. 

5. A noun or a pronoun may be prefixed to a noun to 
indicate gender : — manservant, mother bird, he-wolf. 

6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accom- 
panying part of speech, usually by a pronoun. 

My cat is always washing his face. 
The intruder shook her head. 



H. NUMBER 

66. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether 
they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one. 

There are two numbers, — the singular and the plural. 
The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The 
plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing. 

67. Most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the 
singular: — mat, mats; wave, waves; bench, benches; dish, dishes. 

1. If the singular ends in s, x, z, ch, or sh, the plural end- 
ing is es : — loss, losses ; box, boxes ; buzz, buzzes ; match, 
matches ; rush, rushes. 

2. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant take 
the ending es in the plural : — hero, heroes ; cargo, cargoes ; 
potato, potatoes ; motto, mottoes ; buffalo, buffaloes. 



24 NOUNS 

3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural 
in s : — cameo, cameos ; folio, folios. 

4. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
also form their plural in s : — 



banjo 


casino 


dynamo 


memento * 


quarto 


torso 


bravo 


chromo 


halo* 


octavo 


solo 


tyro 


burro 


contralto 


junto 


piano 


soprano 


zero 1 


canto 


duodecimo 


lasso 


proviso 


stiletto 





68. In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters 
the spelling and even the sound of the singular form. 

1. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es in 
the plural: — fly, flies; country, countries; berry, berries. Contrast: valley, 
valleys ; monkey, monkeys ; boy, boys. 

Most proper names ending in y, however, take the plural in s: — Mary, 
Marys; Murphy, Murphys; Daly, Dalys; Rowley, Rowleys. 

2. Some nouns ending in/ or/e, change the/ to v and add es or s. Thus, — 
^vharf, wharves; wife, wives; shelf, shelves; wolf, wolves; thief, thieves; 
Tmife, knives; half, halves; calf, calves; life, lives; self, selves; sheaf, 
sheaves; loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; elf, elves; beef, beeves. 

69. A few nouns form their plural in en: — ox, oxen; 
brother, brethren (or brothers) ; child, children. 

70. A few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel. 

These are: man, men; woman, women; merman, mermen; foot, feet; 
tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. Also compound 
words ending in man or woman, such as fireman, firemen ; saleswoman, 
saleswomen ; Dutchman, Dutchmen. 

Note. German, Mussulman, Ottoman, dragoman, firman, and talisman, 
which are not compounds of man, form their plurals regularly : as, — Germans, 
Mussulmans. Norman also forms its plural in s. 

71. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and 
plural : as, — deer, sheep, heathen, Japanese, Iroquois. 

This deer was shot in Maine. 

These deer are stragglers from the herd. 

The Iroquois were organized as the Five Nations. 

1 Halo, memento, zero also form a plural in es (haloes, etc.). 



NUMBER 25 



72. A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some 
difference in meaning. 

Singular Plural 

brother j brothers (relatives) 

\ brethren (members of the same society) 
j 10rse < f horses (animals) 

\ horse (cavalry) 
f oot ( feet (parts of the body) 

\foot (infantry) 
sa il ( J sails (on vessels) 

\ sail (vessels in a fleet) 
h eac l J heads (in usual sense) 

i^head (of cattle) 
ns k ( fishes (individually) 

^ fish (collectively) 
penn y f pennies (single coins) 

^ pence (collectively) 
c ^ ot l 1 r cloths (pieces of cloth) 

(^clothes (garments) 
c jj e f dies (for stamping) 

^dice (for gaming) 

The pennies were arranged in neat piles. 

English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and pence. 

73. When compound nouns are made plural, the last part 
usually takes the plural form ; less often the first part ; 
rarely both parts. 

Examples : spoonful, spoonfuls ; bathhouse, bathhouses ; forget-me- 
not, forget-me-nots ; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief ; maid-of -honor, 
maids-of -honor ; gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers ; knight bachelor, 
knights bachelors ; Lord Justice, Lords Justices ; manservant, men- 
servants. 

74. Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, 
and words regarded merely as words take 9 s in the plural. 

fr Embarrassed " is spelled with two r's and two s's. 

Your 3's look like 8's. 

Tell the printer to change the §'s to Ts. 

Don't interrupt me with your bxWs 1 



26 



NOUNS 



75. Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign 
plurals ; but many have an English plural also. 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


alumna (feminine) 


alumnae 




f genii 


alumnus (masculine) alumni 


genius 


I gemuses 


amanuensis 


amanuenses 


genus 


genera 


analysis 


analyses 




f gymnasia 
^gymnasiums 


animalculum 


animalcula * 


gymnasium 


antithesis 


antitheses 


hippopotamus 


; hippopotami 


appendix 


J appendices 


hypothesis 


hypotheses 


^ appendixes 


larva 


larvae 


axis 


axes 




f mp.mnra.Tifln. 


bacillus 


bacilli 


memorandum -i " 

{ memorandums 


bacterium 


bacteria 


nebula 


nebulae 


bandit 


f banditti 


oasis 


oases 




L bandits 


parenthesis 


parentheses 


basis 


bases 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


beau 


beaux, beaus 


radius 


radii 


candelabrum 


candelabra 




f seraphim 


cherub 


J cherubim 


seraph 


^ seraphs 




^ cherubs 


species 


species 


crisis 


crises 


stratum 


strata 


cumulus 


cumuli 


synopsis 


synopses 


curriculum 


curricula 


tableau 


tableaux 


datum 


data 


tempo 


tempi 


ellipsis 


ellipses 


terminus 


termini 


erratum 


errata 


thesis 


theses 


TATTTinl Q 


J f ormulae 
i formulas 


trousseau 


trousseaux 


J.U1 lULHd 


vertebra 


vertebrae 



The two plurals sometimes differ in 
Raphael were geniuses " ; " Spirits are 



meaning : as, — " Michael Angelo and 
sometimes called genii." 



76. When a proper name with the title Mr., Mrs., Miss, or 
Master, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows : — 

1. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (pronounced Messers 2 ). The 
name remains in the singular. Thus, — Mr. Jackson, plural 
Messrs. (or the Messrs.) Jackson. 

1 The English word animalcule (plural animalcules) is preferable. The 
plural animalculse is erroneous. 

2 Messrs. is an abbreviation of the French Messieurs. 



NUMBER 27 

2. Mrs. has no plural. The name itself takes the plural 
form. Thus, — Mrs. Jackson, plural the Mrs. Jacksons. 

3. In the case of Miss, sometimes the title is put into the 
plural, sometimes the name. Thus, — Miss Jackson, plural 
the Misses Jackson or the Miss Jacksons. 

The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would 
not be used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter. 

4. The plural of Master is Masters. The name remains in 
the singular. Thus, — Master Jackson, plural the Masters 
Jackson. 

Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural 
form: as, — the two General Follansbys. But when two or more names 
follow, the title becomes plural : as, — Generals Eolfe and Johnson. 

77. Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or 
never used in the plural. Such are many names of qualities 
(as cheerfulness, mirth), of sciences (as chemistry), of forces 
(as gravitation). 

Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take 
a plural in some special sense. Thus, — 

earth (the globe) earths (kinds of soil) 

ice (frozen water) ices (food) 

tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans) 

nickel (a metal) nickels (coins) 

78. Some nouns are used in the plural only. 

Such are : annals, athletics, billiards, dregs, eaves, entrails, lees, nup- 
tials, oats, obsequies, pincers, proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, 
tweezers, tongs, trousers, victuals, vitals ; and (in certain special senses) 
ashes, goods, links, scales, spectacles, stocks. 

79. A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning. 

Such are : gallows, news, measles, mumps, smallpox (for small pocks), 
politics, and some names of sciences (as, civics, economics, ethics, mathe- 
matics, physics, optics). 

Optics is a branch of physics ; it treats of light. 



28 



NOUNS 



m. PERSON 

80. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether 
they denote (i) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person 
spoken of. 

A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in 
the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third 
person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of. 

I, the king, command his presence. [First person.] 
You, Thomas, broke the window. [Second person.] 
Charles, come here. [Second person.] 
He, the fireman, saved the train. [Third person.] 
The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.] 

There is a special pronoun for each of the three persons, 
but in nouns the distinction is in sense only, never in form. 



IV. CASE 

81. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammati- 
cal relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives. 

There are three cases, — the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. The possessive case is often called the genitive. 

The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always 
alike in form, and are often called the common case. In some 
pronouns, however, there is a difference (as, — 7, me ; he, him). 

82. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension. 
To decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the 
singular number and then in the plural. 

Singular 

Nominative boy horse fly chimney 

Possessive boy's horse's fly's chimney's 

Objective boy horse fly chimney 



Nominative boys 
Possessive boys' 
Objective boys 



horse 


fly 


horse's 


fly's 


horse 


fly 


Plural 




horses 


flies 


horses' 


flies' 


horses 


flies 



chimneys 
chimneys' 
chimneys 



NOMINATIVE CASE 



29 







Singular 






Nominative 


calf 


lass 


man 


deer 


Possessive 


calf's 


lass's 


man's 


deer's 


Objective 


calf 


lass 
Plural 


man 


deer 


Nominative 


calves 


lasses 


men , 


deer 


Possessive 


calves' 


lasses' 


men's 


deer's 


Objective 


calves 


lasses 


men 


deer 



Nominative Case 

83. The nominative case is used in the following construc- 
tions : (1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the 
vocative (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclama- 
tory nominative (or nominative of exclamation), (5) appositive 
with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute. 

1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 

Water freezes. 

Charles climbed the mountain. 

The boy's face glowed with health and exercise. 



2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defin- 
ing the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate 
nominative. 

This stone is a ruby. 
Lobsters are crustaceans. 
Arnold proved a traitor. 
Adams was elected president. 

A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute. 

The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particu- 
larly important with respect to pronouns (§ 120). 



I am he. 
It is I. 



Are you she f 

It was we who did it. 



The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is (in its various 
forms) . It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive 
verbs (§§97-98, 248). 



30 NOUNS 

3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, 
and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative. 

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nominative 
of direct address or a vocative nominative. 

Come, Ruth, give me your hand. 
Turn to the right, madam. 

4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory 
nominative (or nominative of exclamation). 

Peace, be still. 

Fortunate Ruth ! 

A drum ! a drum ! Macbeth doth come. 

Some exclamatory nominatives are often called interjections (§ 365). 

5. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and sig- 
nifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to 
be in apposition. 

An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits. 

Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in 
the nominative case. 

Mr. Scott, the grocer, is here. [Apposition with subject.] 
Tom, old fellow, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.] 
The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a Spaniard. [Apposition 
with predicate nominative.] 

Note. Apposition means "attachment"; appositive means "attached 
noun or pronoun." An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in 
apposition much as an adjective might do (compare "Balboa, a Spaniard" 
with " Spanish Balboa "). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier. 

For the nominative absolute, see § 336. 

Possessive (or Genitive) Case 
84. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession. 

John's yacht lies at her moorings. 
The duck? s feet are webbed. 

Note. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of posses- 
sion in some sense ; all others indicate connection of some kind. Special varie- 
ties are source (as in "Tier's eggs"), authorship (as in " Wordsworth's sonnets "), 
and measure or extent (as in "a day's work"). 

A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is 
attached as an adjective might do and is classed as an adjective modifier. 



POSSESSIVE CASE 31 

85. The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, 
the ending 's: — Jane's hat, the owl's head, the boy's name. 

Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive. 
In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the 
possessive case : — the owls' heads, the boys' names. 

Plural nouns not ending in s take f s in the possessive : — the firemen's 
ball, the policemen's quarters, the children's hour. , 

86. Nouns like sheep and deer, which have the same form 
in both the singular and the plural, usually take ? s in the 
possessive plural. Thus, the deer's tracks would be written, 
whether one deer or more were meant. 

87. 1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s-sound usually 
make their possessive singular by adding 's. 

Examples : Charles's hat, Forbes's garden, Mr. Wells's daughter, 
Bice's carriage, Mrs. Dix's family, a fox's brush. 

I appear at St. James's coffee house. — Addison. 

We are arrived at the crisis of Burns- s life. — Carlyle. 

Note. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule 
accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence 
forms like Charles' and Wells 1 cannot be condemned as positively wrong, 
though Charles's and Wells 1 s are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is 
often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between Dix' and Dick's, 
Mr. Hills 1 and Mr. Hill's, Dr. Childs 1 and Dr. Child's. 

2. Nouns of two or more syllables . ending in s or an s-sound, 
and not accented on the last syllable, may make their posses- 
sive singular by adding 7 s, or may add an apostrophe only. 
In the latter case, there is no difference in sound between the 
possessive and the nominative. 

Examples : Burrows's (or Burrows') Hotel, yEneas's (or JEneas') 
voyage, Beatrice's (or Beatrice') gratitude, Felix's (or Felix') arrival, 
for conscience's (or conscience') sake. [When in doubt, add 's.] 

I would sooner take Empedocles's leap. — Cowper. 

What was the countess's Dutch name ? — Thackeray. 

Wallace's strength was beyond that of ordinary mortals. — Scott. 

It was moved by Halifax's stepfather. — Macaulay. 

Cite a passage from Mr. Malthus' ff Political Economy." — De Quince y. 



32 - NOUNS 

88. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of 
nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the 
possessor is a living being. A phrase with of is used instead. 

The mayor of Detroit (not Detroit's mayor). 

The top of the post (not the post's top). 

The prevalence of the epidemic (not the epidemic's prevalence). 

Note. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies : — " John's 
generosity" or " The generosity of John." If the object possessed is a mate- 
rial thing, the possessive is generally used in the singular : as, — "John's hat " ; 
but the plural possessive is often replaced by an o/-phrase, to avoid ambiguity : 
as, — " The jewels of the ladies " (for " The ladies' jewels "). 

89. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners, the 
sign of the possessive is added to the last name only. 

Brown, Jones, and Richardson's factories. [Brown, Jones, and Rich- 
ardson are partners.] 

It is George and William's turn to take the boat. [George and William 
are to go in the boat together.] 

On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, 
ff Brown's, Jones's, and Richardson's factories," if each individual had 
a factory of his own ; and ff George's and William's answers were 
correct," if each boy answered independently of the other. 

90. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive sign. 
So also when a phrase is vised as a noun. 

My father-in-law' s home is in Easton. 

Tom the blacksmith's daughter is here (or, The daughter of Tom the 
blacksmith) . 

91. The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted 
when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate. 

Conant's [shop] is open nntil noon. 
I buy my hats at Bryant's [shop]. 
We will dine at Pennock's [restaurant]. 
That camera is mine. (See § 122.) 

A similar idiom is common in such expressions as: — "He was a relative 
of John's " ; " That careless tongue of John's will get him into trouble." In 
the first example, " a relative of John's " means " a relative of {—from among) 
John's relatives." The second example shows an extension of this construction 
by analogy. See § 122. 



OBJECTIVE CASE 33 

Objective Case 

92. The objective case, as its name implies, is the case of the 
object. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule : — 

The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. 

The object of a preposition has already been explained and 
denned (§§21-22). 

93. The object of a verb may be (1) the direct object, (2) the 
predicate objective (or the adjunct), (3) the indirect object, 
(4) the cognate object. 

The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 111), (6) in ap- 
position with another objective (§ 112), and (7) as the subject 
of an infinitive (§ 113). 

1. Direct Object of a Verb 

94. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that 
which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transi- 
tive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive. 

1. That man struck my dog. 

2. The arrow hit the target. 

3. The coachman mended the harness. 

4. The fall broke my arm. 

5. The farmer raises corn. 

6. Mr. Eaton makes stoves. 

7. Who ivrote that book f 

In Nos. 1-4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the 
receiver of the action. Thus, in the first sentence, the dog receives 
the blow; in the second, the target receives the action of hit- 
ting. In ]STos. 5-7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting 
the product of the action. For example, the corn is produced by 
the action expressed by the verb raises. 

In each example, the noun that follows the verb completes 

the sense of the verb. M That man struck ." w Struck 

ichom?" "He struck my clog." Until dog is added the sense 
of the verb struck is incomplete. 



34 NOUNS 

95. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb 
is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case. 

Thus, in the examples in § 94, dog is the direct object of the transitive 
verb struck ; target is the direct object of hit, — and so on. Each of these 
nouns is therefore in the objective case. 

The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the 
verb, and its case is also called the accusative. 

96. Intransitive verbs have no object. 

The lion roared. 

The visitor coughed gently. 

The log drifted downstream. 

Compare these sentences with those in § 94. We observe 
that the verbs (unlike those in § 94) admit no object, since 
their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun 
to denote the receiver or product of the action. 

97. The predicate nominative (§ 83 ? 2) must not be confused 
with the direct object. They resemble each other in two particu- 
lars : (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete the 
meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their relation 
to the subject of the sentence. For — 

The predicate nominative describes or defines the subject. Hence 
both substantives denote the same person or thing. 



Charles [subject] 



is 

was 
became 
^was elected „ 



captain [predicate nominative]. 



The direct object neither describes nor defines the subject. 
On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject 
acts. Hence the two substantives regularly x denote different 
persons or things. 

{struck James [object] . 
threw a stone [object]. 
built a boat [object]. 

1 The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a compound 
personal pronoun (" Charles deceived himself"). See § 126. 



OBJECTIVE CASE 35 

98. Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are 
classed as complements, because they are used to complete the 
sense of the predicate verb (§ 456). 

99. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one 
denoting the person and the other (called the secondary object) 
denoting the thing. 

She asked the boy his name. Ask me no favors. 

2. Predicate Objective 

100. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take 
two objects referring to the same person or thing. 

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes 
the sense of the predicate verb, is called a predicate objective. 

We chose Oscar president. [Oscar is the direct object of chose; presi- 
dent is the predicate objective.] 
I call John my friend. 
They thought the man a coward. 
Make my house your home. 

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object, or the 
objective attribute, or the adjunct accusative. It is classed as a complement. 

101. An adjective may serve as predicate objective. 

I call this ship unseaworthy. 

Your letter made your sister anxious. 

3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms 

102. Besides the case of the direct object (often called 
accusative), English once had a case (called the dative) which 
meant to or for [somebody or something]. The dative case 
is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, bnt in 
English it has long been merged in form with the ordinary 
objective (or accusative). 

103. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two 
objects, a direct object and an indirect object. 

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or 
toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate. 



36 NOUNS 

Direct Object only Direct and Indirect 

Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold John his bicycle. 

I gave permission. I gave this man permission. 

He paid a dollar. He paid the gardener a dollar. 

She taught Latin. She taught my children Latin. 

104. Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are 
included in the following list : — 

allot, allow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, fling, forbid, 
forgive, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, let, owe, pardon, 
pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, send, show, sing, spare, 
teach, tell, throw, toss, vouchsafe. 

105. Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns. 

They denied her the necessities of life. 
I guaranteed them a handsome profit. 
The king vouchsafed them an audience. 

106. It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the 
indirect object without changing the sense. 

Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, 
it is classed as a modifier of the verb. 

Thus, in ff Dick sold John his bicycle," John is an adverbial modifier 
of the predicate verb sold, 

107. The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct 
object expressed. Thus, — 

He paid the hatter. 

Here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before 
it and adding a direct object (" his bill" " his money " or the like). 

108. The objective case sometimes expresses the person 
for whom anything is done. 

William made his brother a kite [= made a kite for his brother]. 
Sampson built me a boat [ = built a boat for me] . 

This construction is called the objective of service (or the 
dative of reference or concern). 



OBJECTIVE CASE 37 

109. The objective case is used after like, unlike, near, and 
next, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this 
construction they are often regarded as prepositions. 

The earth is like a ball. [Like is an adjective.] 

She sang like a bird. [Like is an adverb.] 

That answer was unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adjective.] 

This man walks unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adverb.] 

My office is near the station. [Near is an adjective.] 

A stream ran near the hut. [Near is an adverb.] 

The nature of the construction after like, etc., may be seen 
(as in the indirect object) by inserting to or unto (" She sang 
like unto a bird"). 

Note. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after 
like, unlike, and near are all survivals of old dative constructions. 

4. Cognate Object 

110. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object 
a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own. 

Such a noun is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the 
objective case. 

He ran a race. 

The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating cough. 
She sleeps the sleep of death. 
April, April, 

Laugh thy girlish laughter ; 
Then, the moment, after, 
Weep thy girlish tears. — Watson. 

Note. Cognate means "kindred" or "related." The cognate object re- 
peats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed 
as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen 
\)\ contrasting "The blacksmith struck the anvil' 1 with "The blacksmith 
struck a mighty blow" (cf. "struck mightily"). 

For it as cognate object, see § 124. 

5. Adverbial Objective 

111. A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may 
be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective. 



38 NOUNS 

We have waited years for this reform. 

The river is miles away. 

That anchor weighs tons. 

This is an inch too long. 

My father is ninety years old. 

I will stay a short time. 

Come here this instant ! 

Turn your eyes this way. 

This silk is several shades too light. 

A group of words consisting of an adverbial objective with 
its modifier or modifiers forms an adverbial phrase (§ 41). 

Thus, in the preceding sentences, ninety years, a short time, this instant, 
etc., are adverbial phrases. We could substitute for ninety years the 
adverb extremely ; for a short time, the adverb awhile; for this instant, 
the adverb instantly ; for this way, the adverb hither ; for several shades, 
the adverb decidedly. 



6. Objective in Apposition 

112. A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself 
in the objective case (§ 83, 5). 

Yesterday I saw Williams the expressman. [Apposition with the direct 
object of saw..] 

Tom gave his friend John a book. [Apposition with the indirect 
object friend.] 

He lives with Andrews the blacksmith. [Apposition with the object of 
the preposition with.] 

Edwin had two bad faults, laziness and inaccuracy. [Both nouns are 
in apposition with faults, the direct object of had.] 

7. Subject of an Infinitive 

113. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

I believe J ^ m ito be my friend. [Here him (John) to be = that he 
I John J 

(John) is. The objective him (John) is the subject of the infinitive to be.] 

This construction will be treated in connection with the uses 
of the infinitive (§ 315). 



PARSING OF NOUNS 39 



Parsing 

114. To parse a word is to describe its grammatical form 
and to give its construction. 

In parsing a noun, we mention the class to which it belongs, 
give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in 
that case. Thus, — 

1. Frank shot a wolf. 

Frank is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular num- 
ber and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the 
subject of the verb shot. 

Wolf is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] 
gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective 
case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb shot. 

2. Jane, come here. 

Jane is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number 
and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative 
[or in direct address]. 

3. The rope is fifteen feet long. 

Feet is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number 
and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial 
modifier of the adjective long. 

4. Edgar's boat is a sloop. 

Edgar's is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular 
number and third person. It is in the possessive (or genitive) case, 
modifying the noun boat. 



40 PKONOUNS 

CHAPTER II 

PRONOUNS 

115. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a 
person, place, or thing without naming it. 

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and 
person (§ 12). 

Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns. 

116. Pronouns are classified as (1) personal, (2) adjective, 
(3) relative, and (4) interrogative. Under adjective pronouns 
are included demonstrative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. 

PEKSONAL PRONOUNS 

117. The personal pronouns distinguish (i) the speaker, (2) the 
person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken of (§ 80) . 

Singular Plural 

The Pronoun of the First Person : I 

Nominative I Nominative we 

Possessive my or mine Possessive our or ours 

Objective me Objective us 

The Pronoun or the Second Person : thou 

Nominative thou Nominative you or ye 

Possessive thy or thine Possessive your or yours 

Objective thee Objective you or ye 

The Pronoun of the Third Person : he, she, it 

MASCULINE, FEMININE, 
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER 

and NEUTER 

Nominative he she it they 

Possessive his her or hers its their or theirs 

Objective him her it them 

Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct 
forms for the nominative and the objective. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 41 

GENDER AND NUMBER 

118. The. pronouns of the first and second persons (I and 
thou) may be either masculine or feminine. 

The pronouns of the third person have different forms for 
masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular (he, she, it) ; 
but in the plural the form they serves for all three genders. 

119. Thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye are old forms still found 
in poetry and the solemn style. 

In ordinary prose, you, your, and yours are used for the 
second person, whether singular or plural. Yet you always 
takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects. Thus, — 
My friend, you were [not was] in error. 

Hence you may be regarded as always plural in form, but as 
singular in sense when it stands for one person only. 

CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

120. Nominative constructions of the personal pronouns are 
the same as those of nouns (§ 83). 

I am ready. [Subject.] 

It is I. [Predicate nominative.] 

If anybody is guilty, it is he. 

Here, you rascal, what are you about ? [Vocative, direct address.] 

Therein, ye gods, you make the weak most strong. — Shakspere. 

Poor you ! [Nominative of exclamation.] 

General Austin, he and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.] 

For the nominative absolute, see § 336. 

Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a 
predicate nominative is required : — "It is I" [not me.~\ 

121. In imperative sentences the subject (you) is commonly 
omitted : as ? — lf Shut the door." 

Note. The subject I is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, M Would he 
were here! " for " I would that he were here"). So also in "Thank you," 
"Pray tell me" (compare prithee for "I pray thee"). 



42 PBONOUNS 

122. The possessive forms my, thy, our, your, her, and their 
are used when a noun follows ; mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, 
and theirs cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commonly 
in the predicate. His may be used in either way. 

My brother has arrived. The fault is mine. 

Our work is done. Those seats are ours. 

I have torn your glove. This pencil is yours. 

Their turn has come. That field is theirs. 

His hair is black. The book is not his. 

Examples of mine, yours, etc. not in the predicate are : — 

Mine was a terrier ; yours was a pointer. 
A friend of mine told me this. [See § 91.] 
Theirs is a red motor car ; ours is green. 
His leaked badly. 
His name is Martin ; hers is Smith. 

123. When two or more separate objects are spoken of as 
possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if 
there is danger of ambiguity. 

I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.] 
I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.] 
I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.] 
I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.] 

124. The commonest constructions in which personal pro- 
nouns take the objective case are the following : — 

1. Object of a preposition (§ 92) : as, — 

Take it from him. 

2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 95) : as, — 

I will find you. 

3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 103) : as, — 

He gave me a dollar. 

4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 316). 

Note. In poetry the objective me is sometimes used in exclamations : as, — 
" Me miserable! " (Milton). It may be used colloquially as cognate object 
(§ 110) : as, — " I think I shall farm it a little." 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 43 



THE &ELF-PRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS) 

125. The three compound personal pronouns are made by adding 
the word self to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus, — 

myself, plural ourselves ; 

thyself or yourself, plural yourselves ; , 

himself, herself, itself, plural themselves. 

To these may be added the indefinite oneself, more commonly written as 
two words, one 's self (§ 139). 

126. 1. The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize 
substantives. In this use they are called intensive pronouns. 

I myself will go. 

King Alfred himself took the field. 

They did the work themselves. 

An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive 
to which it refers. 

2. The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of 
transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same 
person or thing as the subject. In this use they are called reflexive 
pronouns. 

I have hurt myself. 

We have only ourselves to blame. 

King Alfred interested himself in his subjects. 

These schemers deceived themselves. 

Mary was talking to herself. 

He gave himself & holiday. [Indirect object.] 

These pronouns are called reflexive (that is, " bending back") 
because they refer back to the subject and repeat its meaning. 

127. The adjective oicn is sometimes inserted between the 
first and the second part of the se//-pronouns for emphasis. 

Examples : my own self, your own self, his own self, our own selves, 
their own selves. 

In this use, selfis in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the 
adjective own, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other 
adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and self : as, —my 
very self, his worthless self. 



44 PKONOUNS 

128. The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without 
a substantive : — w You are hardly yourself to-day." 

129. The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple 
personal pronouns : — w They invited my wife and me " (xot 
myself y 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 

130. Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such 
words are called adjective pronouns. 

Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their mean- 
ing, as (1) demonstrative pronouns and (2) indefinite pronouns. 

I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 

131. The demonstratives are this (plural, these), that (plural, those). 
They point out persons or things for special attention and may be used 
either as adjectives or as pronouns. 

I. As adjectives : — 

This sailor saved my life. These girls are energetic. 

Give this boy a dime. These cherries are sour. 

This tire is too hot. Look at these acorns. 

That saw is dull. Those trees are dying. 

Send that dog home. Do you see those rocks ? 

In their adjective use these pronouns are often called demonstrative adjectives. 

II. As pronouns : — 

This is a fine morning. These are cowboys. 

Can you do this f Robert gave me these. 

This is the road. Who are these f 

That is Ellen in the canoe. Those are deer. 

What is that f What are those ? 

If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as ii. 
ff this sailor "), it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out some- 
thing which it does not name (as in ff This is a fine morning "), it takes 
the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. 

Note. Yon, yond, and yonder are common as demonstratives in older 
English and in poetry. Thus, — "Call yonder fellow hither" (Henry V). 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 45 

132. Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. 
They have the same form for all three genders. The nomina- 
tive and objective cases are alike ; the possessive is replaced 
by of with the objective. 





Singular 




Plural 


Nom. and Obj. 


this 


Nom. and Obj. 


ihese 


Possessive 


[of this] 


Possessive 


[of these] 


Nom. and Obj. 


that 


Nom. and Obj. 


those 


Possessive 


[of that] 


Possessive 


[of those] 



133. A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the 
repetition of a noun. 

My dog and that [ = the dog] of my friend John have been fighting. 
Compare these maps with those [= the maps] on the blackboard. 

134. The singular forms this and that (not the plurals these 

and those) are used with the nouns kind and sort. 

I like this kind of grapes. 

I have met this sort of people before. 

That kind of apples grows in Idaho. 

n. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 

135. The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or defi- 
nitely than demonstratives do : as, — each, every, either, both, neither, 
some, any, such, none, other, another, each other, one another. 

Each has its merits. Either is correct. 

Some are missing. He knows neither of you. 

I cannot give you any. I like both. 

136. Most indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives. 
But none is always a substantive in modern use, and every is 
always an adjective. 

137. None may be either singular or plural. When it 

means not one, it is singular. Sometimes either construction 

is permissible. 

None of us has the key. 

None was (or were) left to tell the tale. 



46 PKONOUNS 

138. Each other and one another are regarded as compound 
pronouns. They designate related persons or things. 

My neighbor and I like each other. 
We must bear with one another. 

The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they 
are often called reciprocal pronouns. 

There is no real distinction between each other and one another. The rules 
sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage. 

139. One (possessive one's) is often used as an indefinite 

personal pronoun. Thus, — 

One hardly knows what to think of him. 

One does not like one's [not his or their] motives to be doubted. 

The use of his (for one's) to refer back to a preceding one is common in 
respectable writers, but is contrary to the best usage. 

140. All, several, few, many, and similar words are often 
classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as 
substantives. Everybody, everything, anybody, anything, some- 
what, aught, naught, etc., are called indefinite nouns. 

Every one, any one, some one, each one, and no one may also be classed as 
indefinite nouns. 

141. Care should be taken in framing such sentences as 
the following : — 

Everybody has his [not their] faults. 

If anybody wishes to go, he [not they] may. 

If anybody objects, let him [not them] speak. 

Every pupil must hand in his [not their] composition to-day. 

Each hurries toward his [not their] home. 

Each of us must lead his [not their] own life. 

In sentences of .this kind, the personal pronoun (he, Jus, 
him) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent 
(everybody, anybody, etc.) (see § 115). 

Note. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), 
the personal pronoun (he, his, him) may be regarded as of common gender 
also. In very precise or formal language, one may say he or she, his or her : 
as, — " Each of us must lead his or her own life " ; but this form of expression 
is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 47 

142. When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have 
any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pro- 
nouns, except as follows : — 

Others is used as the plural of another. The possessive forms are : — 
singular, another's; plural, others'. The other (possessive, the other's) has 
in the plural the others (possessive, the others''). Each other and one another 
add 's in the possessive. One has a possessive one's; the one becomes 
the ones in the plural. 

KELAT1VE PRONOUNS 

143. Relative pronouns have a peculiar function in the sen- 
tence, since they serve both as pronouns and as connectives. Their 
use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow : — 

1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life. 

2. This is the sailor who saved my life. 

Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two 
clauses are connected by the conjunction an$, which belongs 
to neither ; the pronoun he, which stands for sailor, is the 
subject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunc- 
tion ; instead, we find the word who, which replaces and he. 
This who is a pronoun, since it stands for sailor (precisely as 
he does in No. 1) and (like he) is the subject of the verb saved. 
But who is also a connective, since it joins the two parts of the 
sentence as and does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both 
as pronouns and as connectives) are called relative pronouns. 

In No. 1, the two clauses are coordinate. Neither serves as a 
modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence 
("This is the sailor." "He saved my life"). The sentence is 
compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause who 
saved my life is a subordinate or dependent clause, for it is used 
as an adjective modifier of the noun sailor, which it limits by 
showing what particular sailor is meant. The sentence is complex 
(§ 44). The dependent clause {who saved my life) is connected 
with the main clause (this is the sailor) by the pronoun who, 
which refers to sailor. 



48 PEONOUNS 

144. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses 
by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause. 1 

This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (§ 12). 

Thus in § 143 the noun sailor is the antecedent of who. 

Relative means " carrying back." These pronouns are so called because 
they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent. 

145. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that, as, 
and what. That, as, and what are not inflected. 

Who and which are declined as follows in both the singular 
and the plural : — 



Nominative 


who 


which 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


whom 


which 



146. As may be used as a relative pronoun when such or 
the same stands in the main clause. 

Such of you as have finished may go. 

I have never seen such strawberries as these [are] . 

Use such powers as you have. 

This color is the same as that [is]. 

Other relatives are also used after the same. 

This is the same book that (or which) you were reading yesterday. 
This is the same man that (or whom) I saw on the pier last Friday. 

147. Who is either masculine or feminine ; which and ivhat 
are neuter ; that and as are of all three genders. 

All who heard, approved. 

Here is the lad whose story interested you. 

The first woman whom I saw was Mary. 

He answered in such English as he could muster. 

I saw nobody that I knew. 

This is the road that leads to London. 

For other uses of as, see §§ 194, 358, 389. For but in such sentences as 
" There was nobody but believed him," see § 360. 

1 Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are sometimes called 
conjunctive pronouns. 



RELATIVE PKONOUNS 49 

148. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, 
number, and person. 

The sentences in § 147 illustrate the agreement of the rela- 
tive with its antecedent in gender. 

Since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers 
and for all three persons, their number and person, must be dis- 
covered, in each instance, by observing the number and person 
of the antecedent. 

It is I who am wrong. [First person, singular number : antecedent, I.] 
We who are his friends cannot believe this. [First person, plural 
number : antecedent, we.] 

All you who are ready may go. [Second, plural : antecedent, you.] 
Give help to him who needs it. [Third, singular : antecedent, him.] 
Such as were willing were sent ahead. [Third person, plural number : 
antecedent, such.] 

The roads that lead to the shore are sandy. [Third, plural : ante- 
cedent, roads.] 

To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun 
is particularly necessary when it is the subject of the clause, for 
the form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according 
to the number and person of the subject (§ 220). Hence the 
rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of 
much practical importance. 

149. The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its ante- 
cedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause. 

The servant who opened the door wore livery. [Who is in the nomi- 
native case, being the subject of opened.] 

He discharged his servant, who immediately left town. [Who is in 
the nominative case, since it is the subject of left, although its antecedent 
(servant) is in the objective.] 

The servant whom you discharged has returned. [Whom is in the 
objective case, since it is the direct object of discharged. The antecedent 
(servant) is, on the other hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject 
of has returned.] 

Here is such money as I have. [As is in the objective case, being the 
object of have. The antecedent (money) is in the nominative.] 

This is the same coat, that I wore yesterday. 



50 PRONOUNS 

150. A relative pronoun in the objective is often omitted. 

Here is the book which you wanted. Here is the book you wanted. 
The noise that I heard was the wind. The noise I heard was the wind. 
The man whom I met was a carpenter. The man I met was a carpenter. 

151. Certain questions of gender call for particular attention. 

1. Which, rather than who, is commonly used in referring to 
the lower animals unless these are regarded as persons. This 
is true even when he or she is used of the same animals. 

This is the dog which I mentioned. Is n't he a fine fellow ? 
We have one cow which we prize highly. She is a Jersey. 

2. Wliose may be used of any object that has life. 

This is the man whose watch was stolen. 

I have a cat whose name is Tabby. 

This is the tree whose leaves were destroyed. It is quite dead. 

3. In the case of things without animal life, of which and 
whose are both common. The tendency is to prefer of which 
in prose, but whose is often used because of its more agreeable 
sound. In poetry, whose is especially frequent. 

A broad river, the name of which I have forgotten, barred the way. 

Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end of which he had tied 
a short piece of ordinary twine. 

She was gazing into the pool, whose calm surface reflected her fea- 
tures like a mirror. [ ff The surface of which " would not sound so well.] 

DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES 

152. The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an 
adjective clause, since it serves as an adjective modifier of the 
antecedent (§ 143). There are two different ways in which 
the antecedent may be thus modified. 

1. The Italian, who wore a flower in his coat, smiled at me. 

2. The Italian who wore a flower in his coat smiled at me. 

In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves 
simply to describe the Italian, not to identify him. The flower 
is a mere detail of the picture. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 51 

In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely 
to describe the Italian, but also to distinguish him from all 
others. The flower is mentioned as a means of identification. 
The relative clause confines or restricts the scope or range of 
the meaning expressed by the antecedent (Italian)} 

153. A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive 
fact is called a descriptive relative. 

A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the 
application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative. 

Thus in the first example in § 152, who is a descriptive relative ; in the 
second, it is a restrictive relative. 

154. Before a descriptive relative we pause in speaking, but 
not before a restrictive relative. Hence the rule : — 

A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma ; a restrictive relative 
is not. 

Three sailors, who were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue. 
A clumsy weapon, which I took for a blunderbuss, hung on the wall. 
I told the news to the first man that (or whom) I met. 
The coins that (or which) you showed me are doubloons. 

Note. Who, which, and that are all used as restrictive relatives ; but some 
writers prefer that to which, especially in the nominative case. 

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHAT 

155. The relative pronoun ivhat means that which, and has 
a double construction : — (1) the construction of the omitted or 
implied antecedent (that) ; (2) that of the relative (which). 

What 1 

Th t h' h ^ was sa ^ * s true. [Here what, being equivalent to that 

which, serves as the subject both of was said and of is.] 

Tom always remembers <( ™ a t , . , y is said to him. [Here what, beinsr 
J \ that which J L ' & 

equivalent to that which, serves as both the object of remembers and the 

subject of is said.] 

1 Clauses introduced by a restrictive relative are often called determinative 
clauses. 



52 PKONOUNS 

Tom always remembers^ ._ ± _ . _ J^he learns. THere what serves 
L that which J L 

both as the object of remembers and as the object of learns.] 

In parsing what, mention both of its constructions. 

Note. Another method of dealing with the relative what is to regard the 
whole clause (what was said ; what is said to him ; what he learns) as a noun 
clause. Thus the clause what was said in the first sentence would be the sub- 
ject of is ; in the second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of 
remembers. What, in the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of was 
said ; in the second, as the subject of is said ; and in the third, as the object 
of learns. Neither view is incorrect, and each has its special advantages. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

156. The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or 
soever to who, which, and what. 

Singular and Plural 

Nominative whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever) 

Possessive whosever (whosesoever) 

Objective whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever) 

Whatever ( whatsoever) has no inflection. The nominative and the objec- 
tive are alike, and the possessive is supplied by the phrase of whatever 
(of whatsoever). The phrase of whichever (of whichsoever) is used instead 
of zohosever exactly as of which is used instead of whose (§ 151, 3). 

157. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their 
own antecedents and hence may have a double construction. 

Whoever calls, he must be admitted. [Here he, the antecedent of who- 
ever, is the subject of must be admitted, and whoever is the subject of calls.] 

Whoever calls must be admitted. [Here the antecedent he is omitted, 
being implied in whoever. Whoever has therefore a double construction, 
being the subject of both calls and must be admitted.] 

He shall have whatever jie wishes. 

I will do whichever you say. 

Give me whichever is the more durable. 

In such sentences, care should be taken to use whoever and 
whomever correctly. The nominative (whoever*) is required 
when the relative is the subject of its own clause. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 53 

He asked whoever came. 

He told the story to whoever would listen. 

He asked whomever he knew. 

He told the story to whomever he met. 

158. The compound relatives are sometimes used without 

an antecedent expressed or implied. , 

Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful. 
Whomever it offends, I will speak the truth. 
Whatever he attempts, he is sure to fail. 
Whichever you choose, you will be disappointed. 

Note. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 157. 
""Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful," is practically equivalent to 
" Whoever deserts you, let him desert you ! I will remain faithful." No ante- 
cedent, however, is felt by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied in 
parsing. Compare concessive clauses (§ 389). 

159. Which, ivhat, whichever, axuiivhatever may be adjectives. 

Use what (or whatever) powers you have. 

Whichever plan you adopt, you have my best wishes. 

160. A noun limited by the adjective w-hat, ivhichever, or 
whatever, may have the same double construction that these 
relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§ 157). Thus, — 

Take whichever pen is not in use. [Here pen is both the direct object 
of take and the subject of is.] 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 

161. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. They are 
used in asking questions. 

Who is your neighbor ? Which is correct ? 

Whom have you chosen ? What did he say ? 

From whom did you learn this ? What is lacking ? 

Whose voice is that ? With what are you so delighted ? 

162. Who has a possessive whose, and an objective whom; 
which and what are not inflected. Who may be either mas- 
culine or feminine; which and what may be of any gender. 



54 PRONOUNS 

163. The objective whom often begins a question (as in 
the second example in § 161). Who should not be written 
for whom. 

164. Which and what are used as interrogative adjectives. 

Which street shall I take ? 
What village is this ? 

165. The interrogative adjective what may be used in a 
peculiar form of exclamatory sentence. Thus, — 

What a cold night this is ! 

What courage he must have had ! 

What I is sometimes an interjection : as, — " What ! do you really think so ? " 

166. In parsing pronouns the following models may be used: — 

1. He was my earliest friend. 

He is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine 
gender, the singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb was. 

2. A policeman whom I met showed me the house. 

Whom is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, 
and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, policeman. It is in the 
objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb met. 

3. The corporal, whose name was Scott, came from Leith. 

Whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, 
and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, corporal. It is in the 
possessive case, modifying the noun name. 

4. Whose birthday do we celebrate in February ? 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, 
singular number, and possessive case, modifying the noun birthday. 

5. He injured himself severely. 

Himself is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used 
reflexively. It is of the masculine gender, singular number, and third 
person, agreeing with its antecedent, he. It is in the objective case, 
being the direct object of the transitive verb injured 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES 55 

CHAPTER III 
ADJECTIVES 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES , 

167. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive. 
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes 

or limits. 

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective ; one 
which points out or designates is called a definitive or limiting adjec- 
tive (§ 14). 1 

Most adjectives are descriptive : as, — round, cold, red. 

Even such a man, so faint, so spiritless, 

So dull, so dead in look, so woe-begone. — Shakspf.re. 

168. A proper noun used as an adjective, or an adjective 
derived from a proper noun, is called a proper adjective and 
usually begins with a capital letter. 

Examples : a Panama hat ; California oranges ; a Corliss engine ; 
Virginian, Spenserian, Icelandic, Miltonic, Turkish, Veronese. All other 
adjectives may be called common. 

169. Definitive or limiting adjectives include : — (1) pronouns 
used as adjectives (as, this opportunity; those pictures'; either 
table; ichat time ?); (2) numeral adjectives (as, two stars ; the 
third year) ; (3) the articles, a (or cm) and the. 

Pronouns used as adjectives (often called pronominal ad- 
jectives) have been studied under Pronouns, — demonstratives 
(§§ 131-134), indefinites (§§ 135-142), relatives (§§ 143-160), 
interrogatives (§§ 161-165). 

Numeral adjectives will be treated, along with other numerals 
(nouns and adverbs), in §§ 202-205. 

The articles will be treated in §§ 173-179. 

1 The same distinction extends to adjective phrases. 



56 ADJECTIVES 

170. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position 
in the sentence, as attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives. 

1. An attributive adjective is closely attached * to its noun and 
regularly precedes it. 

Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look. 

2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it, 
like a noun in apposition (§ 83, 5). 

Noun in Apposition Appositive Adjective 

The castle, a ruin, stood on the The castle, ancient and ruinous, 

edge of the cliff. stood on the edge of the cliff. 

Bertram, the ringleader, refused Bertram, undaunted, refused to 

to surrender. surrender. 

3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate 
verb, but describes or limits the subject. 

171. Predicate adjectives are common after is (in its vari- 
ous forms) and other copulative verbs, particularly become and 
seem (§ 18). 

The sea is rough to-day. 

Burton soon became cautious in his judgments. 

You seem anxious about your future. 

The air grew hot and sultry. 

Our first experiment proved unsuccessful. 

Note. The construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the 
predicate nominative (§ 83, 2). Both are known as complements, because they 
complete the meaning of a verb. 

172. After look, sound, taste, smell, feel, a predicate adjective 

is used to describe the subject. Thus, — 

Your flowers look thrifty. [Not : look thriftily.] 

Their voices sound shrill. [Not : sound shrilly.] 

This apple tastes sweet. [Not : tastes sweetly.] 

The air smells good. [Not : smells well.] 

The patient feels comfortable. [Not : feels comfortably.] 

For predicate adjectives after passive verbs, see § 457, 4. 
For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 101. 

1 Hence such an adjective is sometimes called adherent. 



ARTICLES 57 

THE ARTICLES 

173. The adjectives a (or an) and the are called articles. 

1. The definite article the points out one or more particular objects as 
distinct from others of the same kind. 

The children are in the next room. 

2. The indefinite article a (or an) designates an object as merely one 
of a general class or kind. 

Lend me a pencil. I have an orange. 

174. TJie with a singular noun may indicate a class or kind 
of objects. In this use the is called the generic article. 

The scholar is not necessarily a dryasdust. 
The elephant is the largest of quadrupeds. 

175. An adjective preceded by the may be used as a plural 
noun : — " The brave are honored. " 

176. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent hi 
a before other words. Thus, — an owl ; an honest man ; a stone. 

177. Special rules for a or an are the following : — 

1. Before words beginning, with the sound of y or w, the 
form a, not an, is used. 

Examples : a union, a university, a yew, a ewe, a eulogy, a Utopian 
scheme, such a one. [This rule covers all words beginning with eu and 
many beginning with u. The initial sound is a consonant, not a vowel.] 

2. Before words beginning with h and not accented on the 
first syllable, an is often used. Thus, we say — 

a history ; but, an historical novel. 

178. With two or more connected nouns or adjectives the 
article should be repeated whenever clearness requires (cf . § 123). 

I have consulted the secretary and the treasurer. [ w The secretary and 
treasurer" would imply that the same person held both offices.] 

In some towns there are separate schools for the boys and the girls ; 
in others the boys and girls attend the same schools. 

He waved a red and white flag. 

He waved a red and a white flag. 



58 ADJECTIVES 

179. A is often used distributively, in the sense of each. 

The postman calls twice a day. 
I paid five dollars a pair for my shoes. 

The miners received sixteen dollars an ounce for their gold dust, and 
^cleared about ten thousand dollars a man. 

For the adverb the, which is quite distinct from the article in use and 
meaning, see §194. For the preposition a (as in " He went a-fishing "), see § 343. 

COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES 

180. In comparing objects with each other, we may use three 
different forms of the same adjective. 

Thomas is strong. 

William is stronger than Thomas. 

Herbert is strongest of the three. 

This inflection of adjectives is called comparison, and the 
three forms are called degrees of comparison. 

181. The degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree 
of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists. 

There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive, the compara- 
tive, and the superlative. 

1. The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective, and has 
no special ending. 

It merely describes the quality, without expressing or sug- 
gesting any comparison : — " Thomas is strong." 

2. The comparative degree of an adjective is formed by adding the 
termination er to the positive degree. 

It denotes that the quality exists in the object described 
in a higher degree than in some other object: — ^William is 
stronger than Thomas." 

3. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive 
degree. 

It denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in 
tlid object described : — " Herbert is strongest of the three." 



COMPAEISOX OF ADJECTIVES 59* 

182. Rules of Spellixg. 

1. Adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before the 
comparative ending er and the superlative ending est. Thus,, 
— wise, wiser, wisest ; pure, purer, purest. 

2. Most adjectives ending in y change y to i before the end- 
ings er and est. Thus, — glossy, glossier, glossiest] 

3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single 
consonant double this before the endings er and est. Thus, — 
dim, dimmer, dimmest ; sad, sadder, saddest. 

183. Many adjectives are compared by prefixing the adverbs more 
and most to the positive degree. 

Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of 
three or more syllables are so compared. Thus, — recent, more 
recent, most recent ; terrible, more terrible, most terrible. 

Some adjectives may be compared in either way. 

Examples : intense, intenser, intensest ; or intense, more intense,, 
most intense. So also — profound, sublime, unkind, stupid, etc. 

184. Several adjectives have irregular comparison. 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


bad (evil, ill) 


worse 


worst 


far 


farther 


farthest 





further 


furthest 


good 


better 


best 


late 


later, latter 


latest, last 


well (in health) 


better 





little 


less, lesser 


least 


much, many 


more 


most 



Old has comparative older or elder, superlative oldest or eldest. 
Elder or eldest may be used with certain nouns of relationship, 
or in the phrases the elder and the eldest. 

This is my elder brother. My brother is older than yours. 

Jane was the eldest of six children. I shall wear my oldest clothes. 

Elder is also used as a noun : as, — " You should respect your elders." 



60 



ADJECTIVES 



185. Next is a superlative of nigh. It is used only in the 
sense of " the very nearest. 75 

I live in the next street. 

The next time he comes, I shall refuse to see him. 



186. A few superlatives end in -most. With these, one or 
both of the other degrees are commonly wanting. 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 




(former) 


foremost 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost 




inner 


inmost, innermost 




J outer 
\ (utter) 


outmost, outermost 


(out, adverb) 


utmost, uttermost 


(up, adverb) 


upper 


uppermost 








endmost 





nether 


nethermost 


top 





topmost 








furthermost 


north 




northmost 


northern 


(more northern) 


northernmost 


south 





southmost 


southern 


(more southern) 


southernmost 


east, eastern 


(more eastern) 


easternmost 


west, western 


(more western) 


westernmost 



For adjectives incapable of comparison, see § 200. For special rules for the 
use of comparative and superlative, see §§ 198-201. 

187. In parsing an adjective, tell whether it is descriptive 
or definitive (limiting), mention the substantive to which it 
belongs, and specify the degree of comparison. Thus, — 

The apple hangs on the topmost bough. 

Topmost is a descriptive adjective belonging to the noun bough. It is 
in the superlative degree : — positive, top ; comparative wanting ; super- 
lative, topmost. 



ADVERBS 61 

CHAPTER IV 
ADVERBS AND NUMERALS 

188. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb (§ 19). 

The storm ceased suddenly. 

A very disastrous storm swept the coast. 

The storm ceased very suddenly. 

189. Adverbs are classified according to their meaning as : 
(1) adverbs of manner ; (2) adverbs of time ; (3) adverbs of 
place ; (4) adverbs of degree. 1 

1. Adverbs of manner answer the question w How ? " M In 
what way ? " They modify verbs or adjectives, rarely adverbs. 
Most of them are formed from adjectives by adding ly. 

Tom answered courageously . 

The poor child looked helplessly about. 

Softly and silently fell the snow. 

2. Adverbs of time answer the question w When ? " They 
usually modify verbs. Thus, — 

The old castle is now a museum. 
He was recently promoted. 
I have been disturbed lately. 
My friend arrives to-day. 
Then came the thunder. 
I have already rung the bell. 

3. Adverbs of place answer the question w Where ? " They 
usually modify verbs. Thus, — 

Come here. 

Yonder stands the culprit. 

An old sailor came forward. 

1 The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in 
different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is 
room for difference of opinion. 



62 ADVEEBS 

4. Adverbs of degree answer the question " To what degree 
or extent ? " They modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

Arthur is rather tall. The task is utterly hopeless. 

Father was very much pleased. That is not possible. 

190. Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives. 

You have guessed right. The horse was sold cheap. 

How fast the tide ebbs ! Tired men sleep sound. 

Other examples are : — wrong, straight, early, late, quick, hard, far, 
near, slow, high, low, loud, ill, well, deep, close, just, very, much, little. 

Note. Under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to modify 
adjectives : — "His eyes were dark blue " (compare " very blue ") ; so " light 
yellow," "deep. purple," "icy cold." 

For adverbial phrases, see §§ 41, 42, 449. 
For the adverbial objective, see § 111. 

191. Yes and no are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and 
denying. Thus, — w Are you hungry ? " ^ No." 

Note. As now used, yes and no stand for complete sentences. Originally, 
h.owever, they were modifiers, and hence they are still classed as adverbs. 

192. There is often used merely to introduce a sentence in 
the inverted order (§7). 

There rose a thick smoke from the volcano. 

In this use, there is sometimes called an expletive (or ff filler "). It is 
Tinemphatic, and has lost all its force as an adverb of place. Contrast 
"There [emphatic] stood an Indian under a tree" with "There 
[unemphatic expletive] stood an Indian under a tree." 

EELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS 

193. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar 
in their use to relative pronouns. 

I know a farmhouse^ m wnlcn l we can spend the night. 
^ where j 

Where is an adverb of place, modifying can spend. But it also intro- 
duces the subordinate clause, as the relative pronoun which does. Hence 
where is called a relative adverb. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 63 

194. The principal relative adverbs are : — ivhere, whence, 
whither, wherever, ivhen, whenever, while, as, how, why, before, 
after, till, until, since. 

Because of their similarity to conjunctions, these words are often called 
conjunctive adverbs. 

He had a fever when he was in Spain. 
Work while it is day. 

As the ship passed, we observed that her decks were crowded with 
Malays. [Time.] 

Keep to the right, as the law directs. [Manner.] 

You started before I was ready. 

Wait until the car stops. 

Since you came, it has rained constantly. 

As and since in the sense of "because," and while in the sense of "although," 
are classed as conjunctions (§ 358). 

The clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either 
adjective or adverbial (§§ 49-50, 368-371). 

Note. In " The more you waste, the sooner you will want" (and similar 
sentences) the is not an article, but an old case-form of the pronoun that, used 
as an adverb of degree. We may expand the sentence as follows: " To vjhat 
extent you waste more, to that extent you will want sooner." Thus it appears 
that the first the has a relative force, and the second the a demonstrative force. 

195. An interrogative adverb introduces a question. 

Where, when, tvhence, whither, how, why, may be used as 
interrogative adverbs. Thus, — 

Where are you going ? 

Why must you go ? 

How many ounces make a pound ? 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 

196. Adverbs have three degrees of comparison, — the positive, the 
comparative, and the superlative. 

1. Most adverbs are compared by means of more and most. 

John came promptly. [Positive.] 

Richard came more promptly than John. [Comparative.] 

Henry came most promptly of all. [Superlative.] 



64 



ADVEEBS 



2. A few adverbs are compared by means of the endings er and est 

Thus, — 

Positive Comparative Superlative 



near 
soon 



nearer 
sooner 



nearest 
soonest 



Further examples are : — cheap, dear, early, fast, hard, high, long, 
loud, quick, slow, deep. 



Some adverbs are compared in botli ways. Thus, 
oftener or more often, oftenest or most often. 

197. Several adverbs have irregular comparison. 



■ often, 



OSITIVE 


Comparative 


Superlative 


far 1 

forth J 


f farther 
^ further 


J farthest 


(^furthest 


m \ 

badly j 
nigh 


worse 
nigher 


worst 

f nighest 
\next 


well 


better 


best 


late 


later 


f latest 
\last 


little 


less 


least 


much 


more 


most 



USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 

198. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in com- 
paring two persons or things. 

The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two 
or more. 

P f Mary is the more agreeable of the two. 

' \ Mary is the most agreeable of all the family. 
C I like both Mary and Jane, but I am fondest of Mary. 
Wrong : < I am studying Latin, history, and geometry, but I dislike 
[ the latter. 

The same principle applies to adverbs. 

John runs faster than Tom. 

Which of you three can run fastest ? 



USE OF COMPAKISON 65 

199. The superlative may be used merely for emphasis, 
without implying any definite comparison : as, — w My dearest 
Kate!" 1 

The superlative of emphasis is very common with most. 

Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors. — Shakspere. 
Justice bad been most cruelly defrauded. — Wordsworth. 

200. Many adjectives and adverbs are, from their meaning, 
incapable of comparison. Such are : — 

1. Adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete, 
and adverbs derived from such adjectives. 

Examples : unique, universal, single, matchless, instantaneous, trian- 
gular, everlasting, infinite, mortal ; uniquely, singly, eternally, mortally. 

2. The adverbs here, there, then, now, when, and the like. 

201. An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by 
means of more and most. 

I was never more out of humor [= more vexed]. 

I think your last suggestion most in keeping [= most appropriate]. 



NUMERALS— ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND ADVERBS 

202. Words indicating number are called numerals. They are adjec- 
tives, nouns, or adverbs. 

There are seven days in the week. [Adjective.] 
Twelve make a dozen. [Noun.] 
I have called twice. [Adverb.] 

203. The chief classes of numerals are cardinals and ordinals. 

1. Cardinal numeral adjectives (one, two, three, four, etc.) are used in 
counting, and answer the question " How many ? " 

I had to pay three dollars. 

There were forty -two vessels in the fleet. 

1 When used for emphasis only, the superlative is sometimes called the 
absolute superlative ; when used in actually comparing persons or things, it is 
sometimes called the relative superlative. 



66 NUMEEALS 

2. Ordinal numeral adjectives (first, second, third, etc.) denote the 
position or order of a person or thing in a series. 

Carl plays the second violin. 

Your friend is sitting in the fifth row. 

204. All the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become 
nouns and may take a plural ending in some of their senses. 

One is enough. 

Four are missing. 

The nine played an excellent game. 

The men formed by fours. 

Thousands perished by the way. 

Eight is two thirds of twelve. [So regularly in fractional parts.] 

Note. Hundred, thousand, million were originally nouns, but are now 
equally common as adjectives. Other numeral nouns are: — twain, couple, 
pair, brace, trio, quartette, quintette, foursome, dozen, score, century. 

205. Certain numeral adjectives (single, double, triple, etc.) 
indicate how many times a thing is taken, or of how many like 
parts it consists. 

A double row of policemen stood on guard. 

A fourfold layer of chilled steel forms the door. 

Some of these words may be used as adverbs. 

The cabman charged double. 
His fear increased tenfold. 

Certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate how 
many times an action takes place. 

The only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are once and twice. For 
larger numbers an adverbial phrase {three times, four times, etc.) is employed. 
Thrice, however, is still common in poetry and the solemn style. 

206. In parsing an adverb, tell whether it is an adverb of 
manner, time, place, or degree, and mention the verb, adjective, 
or adverb which it modifies. Compare it, if comparison is 
possible. If it is a relative adverb, tell what clauses it connects. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 67 

CHAPTER V 
VERBS 

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 

207. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an 
action) concerning a person, place, or thing (§ 15). 

Most verbs express action. Some, however, merely express 
state or condition. Thus, — 

1. We jumped f or joy. 

Rabbits burrow into the sides of hills. 

The fugitives threw themselves into the river. 

2. While memory lasts, I can never forget you. 
This order remained in force for three months. 
This mountain belongs to the Appalachian range. 

A verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 16). 

I am writing. He has forgotten me. 

We must go. We had failed. 

You will fall. I do see him. 

208. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are 
called auxiliary verbs, because they help other verbs to express 
action or state of some particular kind (§ 17). 

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, teas, ivere, etc.), may, can, 
must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. 

The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by 
other words : — "I have always liked him " ; "I shall soon send for you " ; 
M Robert was completely bewildered " ; " He has hardly ever spoken to me." 

209. Verbs are either transitive or intransitive (§ 94). 

Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which 
receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive 
verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive. 

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is 
called its direct object. 



68 VERBS 

In the following sentences, the first four verbs are transitive 
(with objects), the last five are intransitive (without objects) : — 

Lightning shattered the oak. Look where he stands and glares ! 

Clouds darkened the sky. The bankrupt absconded. 

The orator quoted Tennyson. The sound died away. 

Coal yields gas. The words differ in one letter. 

210. A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransi- 
tive in another. 

Transitive Intransitive 

(with Object) (without Object) 

Boys fly kites. Birds fly. 

The pirates sank the ship. The stone sank. 

I closed my eyes. School closed yesterday. 

Tom tore his coat. The cloth tore easily. 

211. Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely, — that is, merely 
to express action without any indication of the direct object. 

With Object Expressed Used Absolutely 

The horses drank water. The horses drank from the brook. 

The farmer plows his fields. The farmer plows in the spring. 

Charles is drawing a picture. Charles is drawing. 

Ellen reads good books. She reads uncommonly well. 

There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used 
absolutely and a real intransitive verb. To the former we can 
always add an object ; with the latter no object is possible. 

212. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may 
be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in 
the predicate describe or define the subject (§ 18). 

Such verbs are called copulative or linking verbs. 
Is in this use is often called the copula (or " link "). 

Time is money. The current is sluggish. 

Grant was a tireless worker. This village looks prosperous. 

Macbeth became a tyrant. The consul's brow grew stern. 

His swans always prove geese. The queen turned pale. 

Arnold turned traitor. The chief remained silent. 



TENSE 69 

In the first five examples, the copulative verb (the simple 
predicate) is followed by a predicate nominative (§ 83, 2) ; in 
the last five, by a predicate adjective (§ 170, 3). 

Note. The copulative, or linking, v ^rbs are intransitive, since they take no 
object. All other intransitive verbs are often called verbs of complete predica- 
tion or complete verbs. Sometimes, however, the linking verbs are regarded as 
a third class distinct from both transitive and intransitive verbs. 

213. The verb is is not always a copula. It is sometimes 
emphatic and has the sense of exist. 

I think. Therefore I am. [That is, I exist.] 
Whatever is, is right. [The second is is the copula.] 

Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some 
sense in which they cease to be copulative. 

Walnut trees grow slowly. The wheel turned slowly. 

Mr. Watson grows peaches. He turned his head and looked. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS — TENSE 

214. Verbs have inflections of tense, person and number, and 
mood. They also have the distinction of voice, which is ex- 
pressed by the help of verb-phrases. 

Tense indicates time ; person and number correspond with 
person and number in substantives ; mood shows the manner 
in which the action is expressed; voice indicates whether the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

215. The tense of a verb indicates its time. 

Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time 

1. A verb in the present tense refers to present time. 

2. A verb in the past tense refers to past time. 1 

3. A verb in the future tense refers to future time. 

The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses. 

Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense 

He lives here. He lived here. He will live here. 

The sun shines. The sun shone. The sun will shine. 

I know him. I knew him. I shall know him. 

1 The past tense is often called the preterite. 



70 VEEBS 

FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 

216. The present and the past tense have special forms of 
inflection. For the moment we will take the form which the 
verb has when its subject is the first personal pronoun I. 

217. In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any 
inflectional ending. 

I like it. I dwell in the wilderness. 

I hope for the best. I find him amusing. 

218. The past tense is formed in different ways. 

Most verbs form the past tense by adding ed, d, or t to the present : 

as, — collect, collected ; talk, talked ; seize, seized. 

Such verbs are called regular verbs ; all others are called irregular. 

When the ending is t, there is usually some further change in spelling 
or sound. Thus, — dwell, dwelt; send, sent; mean, meant. Examples of 
irregular verbs are : — sink, sank ; bind, bound ; cling, clung ; set, set ; 
bring, brought. 

The forms of the irregular verbs must be learned by practice. 
A full list will be found on pages 209-217. 

219. Many irregular verbs form the past tense by changing 
the vowel of the present, without the addition of an end- 
ing : as, — sink, sank ; run, ran ; choose, chose ; freeze, froze. 

Such verbs are often called strong verbs, and those that form the past tense 
by means of an ending (ed, d, or t) are often called weak verbs. 



PERSON AND NUMBER — THE PERSONAL ENDINGS 

220. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

Verbs, like substantives, have two numbers (singular and plural) and 
three persons (first, second, and third). 

The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural 
number denotes more than one person or thing. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; the second person denotes the 
person spoken to ; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. 



PERSON AND NUMBER 71 

221. The inflections of person and number in verbs may be 
seen by framing sentences with the personal pronouns as 
subjects. Thus, — 

Present Tense 

singular plural 

1. I walk. 1. We walk. 

2. Thou walk-es£. 2. You walk. 

3. He walk-s [old form, walk-e^]. 3. They walk. 

Past Tense 
singular plural 

1. I walked. 1. We walked. 

2. Thou walked-s£. 2. You walked. 

3. He walked. 3. They walked. 

Thus it is evident (1) that the person and number of a verb 
are usually shown by its subject only, but (2) that some verb- 
forms have special endings which denote person and number. 

222. The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and 
number are called personal endings. 

1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, 
est for the second person singular and s for the third person 
singular (old form eth). 

The first person singular and all three persons of the plural 
are alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no 
personal ending is added. 

2. The past tense has but one personal ending, — est or st 
in the second person singular. 1 

The forms in est or st are confined to poetry and the solemn 
style. In ordinary language, the second person plural is used 
to address a single person. 

The following table shows the personal endings of the present 
and the past tense : — 

1 The ending ed indicates tense, not person or number. 



72 



VEEBS 



Personal Endings 



Present Tense 



SINGULAR 



1. [no ending] 

2. -est, -st 2. i- [no ending] 

3. -s [oW, -eth] 3. j 



Past Tense 



singular 

1. [no ending] 

2. -est, -st 

3. [no ending] 



1. 

2. j> [no ending] 
3. 



Conjugation of the Present and the Past 

223. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (§ 52). 
When we inflect a verb, we are said to conjugate it. 



Conjugation of the Regular Verb Walk 



Present Tense 



singular 

1. I walk. 

2. Thou walkest. 1 

3. He walks. 



1. I walked. 

2. Thou walkedst. 

3. He walked. 



Past Tense 



1. "We walk. 

2. You walk. 

3. They walk. 

1. We walked. 

2. You walked. 

3. They walked. 



Conjugation of the Irregular Verb Find 



Present Tense 



singular 

1. I find. 

2. Thou findest. 

3. He finds. 



Past Tense 



1. I found. 

2. Thou foundest. 

3. He found. 



PLURAL 

1. We find. 

2. You find. 

3. They find. 

1. We found. 

2. You found. 

3. They found. 



1 The second person singular is often given as " Thou walkest or You walk" 
but it is simpler to regard You walk in this use as a plural in a singular sense. 



PERSON AND NUMBER 



73 



Conjugation of the Copula 



singular 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 



1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Present Tense 



Past Tense 



plural 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 



Special Rules of Person and Number 

224. It has several peculiar uses. 

1. It is used as the subject in many expressions like w It 
rains," w It snows," K It lightens/' w It is cold," where no 
definite subject is thought of. In this use, the verb is said 
to be impersonal. 

2. It often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce 
the verb is, the real subject of the thought standing in the 
predicate. In this use it is called an expletive (or w filler "). 

It is he. 

It is Christmas. 

It was a tiresome ride. 

In these examples, the subject of the thought (he, Christmas, ride) 
appears as a predicate nominative. 

3. The antecedent of it is often a group of words. 

Wearing tight shoes is foolish. It deforms the feet. 

225. When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of 
the verb is determined by the following rules : — 

1. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the 

plural number. 

My brother and sister play tennis. 

The governor and the mayor are cousins. 



74 VEEBS 

2. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the 
singular number if the substantives are singular. 

Either my brother or my sister is sure to win. 

Neither the governor nor the mayor fa vors this appointment. 

3. A compound subject with and expressing but a single 
idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number. 

The sum and substance [ = gist] of the matter is this. 

Note. This construction in modern prose is for the most part confined to 
such idiomatic phrases as end and aim (= purpose), the long and short of it, 
etc. The poets, however, use it freely (as in Kipling's " The tumult and the 
shouting dies "). 

4. If the substantives connected by or or nor differ in num- 
ber or person, the verb usually agrees with the nearer. 

Either you or he is to blame. 

Neither you nor he is an Austrian. 

Neither John nor we were at home. 

Neither the mayor nor the aldermen favor this law. 

Such expressions are avoided by careful writers. The follow- 
ing sentences show how this may be done : — 

Either you are to blame, or he is. 
One of you two is to blame. 
Neither of you is an Austrian. 
He is not afraid ; neither am I. 

226. In such expressions as the following, the subject is not 
compound, and the verb agrees with its singular subject : — 

The governor with his staff is present. 
John, as well as Mary, is in London. 

227. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense 
commonly take a verb in the singular number (§ 79). 

Economics is an important study. 

The gallows has been abolished in Massachusetts. 

In some words usage varies. Thus, pains, in the sense of care or effort, is 
sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural : — " Great pains 
has (or have) been taken about the matter." 



PERSON AND NUMBER 75 

228. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and some- 
times a plural verb. When the persons or things denoted are 
regarded as individuals, the plural should be used ; when the 
collection is regarded as a unit, the singular. 

1. The Senior Class requests the pleasure of your company. [Here the 
class is thought of collectively, acting as a unit.] , 

2. The Senior Class are unable to agree upon a president. [Here the 
speaker has in mind the individuals of whom the class is composed.] 

3. The nation welcomes Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a 
single individual to welcome a distinguished guest.] 

4. The American nation are descended from every other nation on 
earth. [The separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the 
nation are in the speaker's mind.] 

This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is unimportant, and 
the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb. 

229. A number in the sense of "several" or "many" regu- 
larly takes the plural ; the number takes the singular. 

A number of sailors were loitering on the pier. 
The number of tickets is limited. 

230. Half, part, portion, and the like, take either the singu- 
lar or the plural according to sense. 

Half of a circle is a semicircle. 
Half of the passengers were lost. 
The tenth part of a dollar is a dime. 
Part of these books are French. 

231. A verb which has for its subject a relative pronoun is in 
the same person and number as the antecedent. For examples, 
see § 149. Errors are especially common in such sentences as, — 

This is one of the strangest sights that ever were seen. [The ante- 
cedent of that is sights (not one) ; hence the relative (that) is plural, and 
accordingly the verb is plural (were, not was).] 

Mr. Winn's oration was among the most eloquent that have [not has] 
been delivered in this state for many years. 

This is one of the finest paintings there are in the hall. [For the 
omission of the relative, see § 150.] 



76 VERBS 

THE FUTURE TENSE 

232. The future tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the aux- 
iliary verb shall ox will followed by the infinitive without to 
<§ 30). 

The following table shows the form of the future for each of 
the three persons in assertions and in questions : — 

Future Tense 

Assertions (Declarative) 

singular plural 

1. I shall fall. 1. We shall fall. 

2. Thou wilt fall. 2. You will fall. 

3. He will fall. 3. They will fall. 

Questions (Interrogative) 
singular plural 

1. Shall I fall ? 1. Shall we fall ? 

2. Shalt thou fall ? 2. Shall you fall ? 

3. Will he fall ? 3. Will they fall ? 

233. Common errors are the use of will for shall (1) in the 
first person in assertions and questions, and (2) in the second 
person in questions. 

In the following sentences the first person of the future 
tense is correctly formed : — 

I shall [not will] drown. Shall [not will] I drown ? 

I shall [not will] fail. Shall [not will] I fail ? 

We shall [not will] sink. Shall [not will] we sink ? 

The verb-phrases with shall express merely the action of 
the verb in future time. They do not indicate any willingness 
or desire on the part of the subject. 

Contrast the following sentences, in which I will or we will 

is used: — 

I will go with you. We will allow you to enter. 

I will not endure it. We will have the truth. 



FUTURE TENSE 77 

Here the verb-phrases with will do not express the action 
of the verb in future time. They express the present willingness 
or desire or determination of the speaker to do something in the 
future. 

Hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are 
not forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases 
expressing willingness or desire. 

234. In the first person shall, not will, is the auxiliary of the future 
tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, 
without expressing willingness, desire, or determination. 

Will in the first person is used in promising, threatening, consenting, 
and expressing resolution. 1 It never denotes simple futurity. 

I. Simple Futurity (Future Tense) 

I shall be eighteen years old in July. [Not : will be."] 
Hurry, or we shall miss our train. [Not : will miss.] 
We shall be glad to see him. [Not : will be.] 
We shall never succeed in this undertaking. [Not : will.] 

II. Promises, Threats, etc. 

I will subscribe to your fund. [Promise.] 

I will discharge you if you are late again. [Threat.] 

We will permit you to go. [Consent.] 

I will have obedience. [Resolution.] 

I HI and we HI are contractions of I Will and we will and can never stand 
for I shall and we shall: "I'll meet you at noon" [promise]. "I'll never 
consent " [resolution]. " We HI be revenged on you " [threat]. 

235. When willingness is expressed by an adjective, I shall 
is required ; when by an adverb, I will is usual. Thus, — "I 
shall be glad to help you." w I will gladly help you." 

236. In the second person Shall you? not Will you? is the proper 
form of the future tense in questions. 

Will you ? always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and 
never simple futurity. 

1 All these ideas may be included under a single term, volition. 



78 VEEBS 

Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary 
used is the same as that expected in the answer. 

I. Future Tense (Simple Futurity) 

Shall you be disappointed if he does not come ? [I shall.] 

Shall you regret his absence ? [I shall.] 

Shall you go by boat or by train ? [I shall go by boat.] 

II. Verb-Phrase denoting Willingness, etc. 

Will you write often ? [I will.] 

Will you allow me to help you ? [I will.] 

Will you be so kind as to open the window ? [I will.] 

237. Shall in the second and third persons is not the sign of 
the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used in command- 
ing, promising, threatening, and expressing resolution, the volition 
being that of the speaker. 

Thou shalt not kill. [Command.] 

You shall have the hat before Monday. [Promise.] 

You shall pay for this insult ! [Threat.] 

She shall not regret her generosity. [Resolution.] 

For shall and will in subordinate clauses, see pp. 98-100, 132, 134. 



COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES 

238. Completed action is denoted by special verb-phrases made 
by prefixing to the past participle some form of the auxiliary- 
verb have. These are called the complete or compound tenses. 

There are three complete or compound tenses, — the perfect 
(or present perfect), the pluperfect (or past perfect), and the future 
perfect. 

1. The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of 
the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing 
have (hast, has) to the past participle. 

I have learned my lesson. He has convinced me. 

Note. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary be is sometimes used 
instead of have : as, — " My friends are gone " (or " have gone "). 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 79 

2. The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action 
was completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing 
had Qiadsf) to the past participle. 

Before night fell, I had finished the book. 
When Blake had spoken, Allen rose to reply. 

3. The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed 
at some point in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future tense 
of have (shall have, etc.) to the past participle. 

Before I hear from you again, I shall have landed at Naples. 

239. The forms of the past participle will be studied in 
§ 325. Meanwhile, the following practical rule will serve : — 

The past participle is that verb-form which is used after / have. 

Examples : [I have] mended, tried, swept, forgotten, found, dug. 

240. A verb-phrase made by prefixing liaving to the past 

participle is called the perfect participle ; a verb-phrase made 

by prefixing to have to the past participle is called the perfect 

(or past) infinitive. 

Having reached my destination, I stopped. 
I am sorry to have missed you. 

The perfect participle is also called the phrasal past participle. 

241. Three forms of the verb are so important that they 
are called the principal parts : — (1) the first person singular of 
the present ; (2) the first person singular of the past ; (3) the 
past participle. 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


(I) walk 


(I) walked 


walked 


(I) think 


(I) thought 


thought 


(I) see- 


(I) saw 


seen 


(I) come 


(I) came 


come 


(I) make 


(I) made 


made 



VOICE — ACTIVE AND PASSIVE 

242. Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

There are two voices, active and passive. 



80 VEEBS 

1. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the 
doer of an act. 

Mr. Hardy builds carriages. 
Richard shot the bear. 
Dr. Jackson has cured my father. 
The crew had deserted the ship. 

2. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the 
receiver or the product of an action. 

Carriages are built by Mr. Hardy. 
The bear was shot by Richard. 
My father has been cured by Dr. Jackson. 
The ship had been deserted by the crew. 

243. The passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase made 
by prefixing some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the past participle. 

In the passive of the complete tenses, the past participle been 
follows the proper form of the auxiliary have (§ 242, 2). 

The passive of the infinitive is made by prefixing to be 
(perfect, to have been) to the past participle. Thus, — 

Present infinitive passive : to be struck. 
Perfect infinitive passive : to have been struck. 



244. The following table gives the conjugation of the verb 
strike in the active and the passive of all six tenses : — 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

Present Tense 
singular 

1. I strike. 1. I am struck. 

2. Thou strikest. 2. Thou art struck. 

3. He strikes. 3. He is struck. 

PLURAL 

1. We strike. 1. We are struck. 

2. You strike. 2. You are struck. 

3. They strike. 3. They are struck. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS 



81 



Active Voice 



1. I struck. 

2. Thou struckest. 

3. He struck. 



Passive Voice 
Past Tense 
singular 

1. I was struck. 

2. Thou wast struck. 

3. He was struck. 



1. We struck. 

2. You struck. 

3. They struck. 



PLURAL 

1. We were struck. 

2. You were struck. 

3. They were struck. 



1. I shall strike. 

2. Thou wilt strike. 

3. He will strike. 



Future Tense 
singular 

1. I shall be struck. 

2. Thou wilt be struck. 

3. He will be struck. 



1. We shall strike. 

2. You will strike. 

3. They will strike. 



PLURAL 

1. We shall be struck. 

2. You will be struck. 

3. They will be struck. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 



1. I have struck. 

2. Thou hast struck. 

3. He has struck. 



singular 

1. I have been struck. 

2. Thou hast been struck. 

3. He has been struck. 



1. W i have struck. 

2. Ycu have struck. 

3. They have struck. 



PLURAL 

1. We have been struck. 

2. You have been struck. 

3. They have been struck. 



82 



VEEBS 



Active Voice Passive Voice 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 



1. I had struck. 

2. Thou hadst struck. 

3. He had struck. 



SINGULAR 



1. I had been struck. 

2. Thou hadst been struck. 

3. He had been struck. 



1. We had struck. 

2. You had struck. 

3. They had struck. 



PLURAL 

1. We had been struck. 

2. You had been struck. 

3. They had been struck. 



Future Perfect Tense 
singular 



1. I shall have struck. 

2. Thou wilt have struck. 

3. He will have struck. 



1. I shall have been struck. 

2. Thou wilt have been struck. 

3. He will have been struck. 



1. We shall have struck. 

2. You will have struck. 

3. They will have struck. 



PLURAL 

1. We shall have been struck. 

2. You will have been struck. 

3. They will have been struck. 



Use of the Passive Voice 

245. Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive 
verb followed by an object, may be changed from the active 
to the passive form without affecting the sense. 

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and 
the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase 
modifying the predicate verb. 



Active Voice 

My cat caught a bird. 
Austin thanked Charles. 
The bullet penetrated a tree. 
Sargent painted that portrait. 
The do": had saved the child. 



Passive Voice 

A bird was caught by my cat. 
Charles was thanked by .Austin. 
A tree was penetrated by the bullet. 
That portrait was painted by Sargent. 
The child had been saved by the dog. 



USE OF THE PASSIVE 83 

246. Intransitive verbs are ordinarily used in the active voice 
only. 

The bystanders laughed. The watchdogs bark. Snow is falling. 

247. An intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often 
used in the passive, the object of the preposition becoming the 
subject of the verb. 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

Everybody laughed at him. He was laughed at by everybody. 

He has tampered with this lock. This lock has been tampered with. 

The cart ran over me. I was run over by the cart. 

Note. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an ending attached to 
the verb to make it transitive. In other words, laugh at, etc., are treated as 
compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the object of 
the compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and the prepo- 
sition (now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The passive 
construction is well established, but not always graceful. 

248. The passive of some verbs of choosing, calling, naming, 
making, and thinking may be followed by a predicate nominative 
(§ 83, 2). 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

(predicate objective) (predicate nominative) 

We elected John president. John was elected president. 

The Roman people called the chief The chief was called friend by the 

friend. Roman people. 

They styled him prefect. He was styled prefect. 

Note. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to 
the same person or thing, — a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 100). In 
the passive, the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective 
becomes a predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 83, 2). 



Object of the Passive 

249. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, 

one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other 
becoming the subject. Thus, — 



84 VEBBS 

1. The indirect object is retained. 

Active Voice Passive Vqice 

My aunt gave me this watch. This watch was given me by my 

aunt. 
We allowed them free choice. Free choice was allowed them. 

He allowed each speaker an hour. An hour was allowed each speaker. 

2. The direct object is retained. 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

We allowed them their choice. They were allowed their choice. 

He allowed each speaker an hour. Each speaker was allowed an hour. 
We told him the truth. He was told the truth. 

The direct object after a passive verb is often called the 
retained object. 

Note. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful 
writers, except in a few well-established idioms. 

250. The verb ask, which may take two direct objects, — 
one denoting the person, the other the thing, — sometimes 
retains its second object in the passive construction (§ 99). 

Active. We asked him his opinion. 
Passive. He was asked his opinion. 

PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 

251. In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs 
have so-called progressive forms. 

The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as 
going on or continuing at the time referred to. 

I was eating my dinner. [Compare : I ate my dinner.] 
While I was quietly reading by my fireside, strange things were taking 
place in the square. 

Both ate and was eating are in the past tense. But ate merely 
expresses a past action, whereas was eating describes this action 
as continuing or in progress in past time. 



PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 85 

252. The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to 
the present participle some form of the verb to be. 

Progressive Conjugation 
Active Voice 
Present Tense 
singular plural 

1. I am striking. 1. We are striking. 

2. Thou art striking. 2. You are striking. 

3. He is striking. 3. They are striking. 

Past I was striking, etc. 

Future I shall be striking, etc. 

Perfect (Present Perfect) I have been striking, etc. 

Pluperfect (Past Perfect) I had been striking, etc. 

Future Perfect I shall have been striking, etc. 





Passive Voice 


Present 


I am being struck, etc. 


Past 


I was being struck, etc, 



253. In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to 
bhe present and the past tense. 

He is being helped by his brother. [Present.] 
An accurate list is being made. 
When I called, tea was being served. [Past.] 

While the library was being catalogued, several volumes were mis- 
placed. 

254. In subordinate clauses, the verb is (in its various forms) 
with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases. 

While waiting for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is, While I 
svas waiting.] 

I lost my way while hunting. 

Though listening eagerly, he seemed indifferent. 

In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied. 

For such progressive forms as is building for is being built, see § 343. 



86 VEEBS 



EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES 

255. The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be 
expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or 
did and the infinitive without to. 

Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense. 

ff I do see you" and fr I did go" differ from ff I see you" and rr I went" 
merely in emphasis. Hence do see is called the emphatic form of the 
present tense of see, and did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go, 

256. In questions and in negative statements the emphatic 
forms are used without the effect of emphasis. 

Did you go ? I did not go. 

MOOD OF VERBS 

257. Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in 
which the action or state is expressed. 

Compare the forms of the verb in the following sentences : — 

Richard is quiet. If Richard were quiet, I might study. 

Is Richard quiet ? Richard, be quiet. 

In the first and second sentences, the form is is used to assert 
or question a fact ; in the third, the form were expresses a con- 
dition or supposition that is contrary to fact ; in the fourth, the 
form be expresses a command or request. 

The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is 
called a difference of mood. 

258. There are three moods, — the indicative, the imperative, and 
the subjunctive. 

1. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but 
it is used in other constructions also. 

2. The imperative is the mood of command or request. 

3. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of 
wish, condition, and the like. 

Thus, in the examples in § 257, is is in the indicative, were 
in the subjunctive, and be in the imperative mood. 



INDICATIVE MOOD 8T 

I. INDICATIVE MOOD 

259. The ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active 
and the passive voice and in all six tenses, — present, past, 
future, perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect), 
and future perfect, — may be seen in the table on pages 80-82. 

For the progressive form of the indicative, see § 252 ; for the 
emphatic form, see § 255. 

260. The commonest uses of the indicative mood are in state- 
ments or questions as to matters of fact ; but it may express 
almost any other form of thought. Thus, — 

Time and tide wait for no man. [Assertion.] 

How goes the world with you ? [Interrogation.] 

How it rains! [Exclamation.] 

If the river rises, the dam w r ill be swept away. [Supposition.] 

I suspect that he has absconded. [Doubt.] 

I hope that John will come soon. [Desire.] 

Though Ellen dislikes algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.] 

You will report for duty immediately. [Command.] 

Will you allow me to use your knife ? [Request.] 

Note. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct 
in form, and each had its own set of constructions. But, as our language has 
grown simpler in its structure, the forms of these two moods have become 
almost identical, and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied 
at the expense of the subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of 
thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the indica- 
tive cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to frame any satisfac- 
tory definition of the indicative. Its functions are too varied to be included in 
one general statement. The indicative is often described as the mood which 
asserts thought as a fact, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses 
thought as supposition (or as mere thought). But the indicative, as well as the 
subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire, concession, etc. 
Hence the definitions in § 258 are as exact as the facts of the language allow. 
All the efforts of grammarians to devise more "accurate " definitions break 
down when tested by actual usage. 

II. IMPERATIVE MOOD 

261. The imperative is the mood of command or request. 

Hurry ! Shut the door. Light the lamp. 

Lie down. Have patience. Show us the way. 



88 VERBS 

The imperative has both voices, active and passive, but only 
one tense, — the present. It has both numbers, the singular and 
the plural, but only one person, the second. It has the same 
form for both the singular and the plural. 

262. 1. The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form. 

For examples, see § 261. 

The imperative of the verb to be is be. Thus, ■ — 

Be brave. Be careful. Be sure you are right. 

2. The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a 
past participle. 

Be trusted rather than feared. 

263. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is 
emphatic : — " You sit here " ; w Go thou " ;. " Go you " ; M Hear ye." 

264. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the 
imperative do, followed by the infinitive without to. 

Bo tell me what he said. 

265. Prohibition (or negative command) is commonly expressed 
by means of the form with do. 

Bo not forget. 

Bo not make that mistake again. 

In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed 
by the simple imperative with not. 

Bevise not evil against thy neighbor. 

266. Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative 

by means of shall or will (§ 237). 

Thou shalt not steal. 

You will leave the room immediately. 

For such expressions as " Forward ! " "Off with you!" and the like, 
see § 483. 

For the imperative in conditions, see § 404. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 89 

III. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Forms of the Subjunctive 

267. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions 
of wish, condition, and the like. 

In older English the subjunctive forms were common in a 
variety of uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn 
style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive forms that 
differ from the indicative are rare, and in conversation they 
are hardly ever heard, except in the case of the copula be. 

Subjunctive Mood 

Present Tense 
singular plural 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past Tense 
singular plural 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 
singular plural 

1. If I have been. 1. If we have been. 

2. If thou have been. 2. If you have been. 

3. If he have been. 3. If they have been. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 
singular ' plural 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

If is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that 
the subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but if is of course no part 
of the subjunctive inflection. 



90 VEEBS 

268. In other verbs, the subjunctive active has the same forms 
as the indicative, except in the second and third persons singular 
of the present and the perfect, which are like the first person : — 

Present Perfect 

1. If I strike. 1. -If I have struck. 

2. If thou strike. 2. If thou have struck. 

3. If he strike. 3. If he have struck. 

In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula 
(§ 267) are used as auxiliaries : — present, If I be struck ; past, 
If I ivere struck ; perfect, If I have been struck ; pluperfect, 
If I had been struck. (See table, p. 222.) 

269. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed 
by means of the copula : — present, If I be striking ; past, If I 
were striking. The present is rare ; the past is common. 

Uses of the Subjunctive 

270. The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers. 

Heaven help him ! Long live the king ! 

The saints preserve us ! O that I had listened to him ! 

God bless you ! O that we were rid of him ! 

In the first four examples, the wish is expressed in an independent 
sentence. In the last two, the construction is subordinate, — the that- 
clause being the object of an unexpressed ff I wish " (§ 395). 

271. The subjunctive be is often omitted when it may easily 
be supplied. 

Peace [be] to his ashes ! Honor [be] to his memory ! 

272. Wishes are often introduced by may or would. 

May you never want ! 

Would that he were safe ! 

Would you were with us ! [For Would that.] 

May and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives ; would 
stands for / would, that is, i" should wish. Want in the first example is an 
infinitive without to (§ 303). For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 311. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 91 

273. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take 
the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style. 

Hear we the king ! 

Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let us followed by 
the infinitive without to : as, — " Let us have peace." 

Let is a verb in the imperative mood, us is its object, and the infinitive 
(have) depends on let. In speaking, let us often becomes let's. 

274. The subjunctive is used after though, although, to express an 
admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Although he were to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse. 

When the concession is stated as an admitted fact, the indica- 
tive is regular. 

Although he is a foreigner, he speaks good English. 

275. After ^/ , and unless, expressing condition, the subjunctive 
may be used in a variety of ways. See conditional sentences 
(pp. 128-129). 

276. Concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunc- 
tive without though or if, the verb preceding the subject, which 
is sometimes omitted. 

I. Concession 

Try as we may, we cannot swim to that rock. 
Be that as it may, my mind is made up. 

II. Condition 

Were I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.] 
Had I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc.] 
I shall be twenty years old, come Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.] 
I will go, rain or shine. [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.] 
Be he prince or be he pauper, every guest is welcome here. 

277. After as if (as though), the past subjunctive is used. 
He looks as if he were about to speak. [Not : as if he was.] 



92 VEEBS 

278. The subjunctive may express not what is or was, but 
what would be or would have been, the case. 

It were safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.] 

I had been wiser had I refused. [I should have been wiser if I had.] 

This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses should 
(or would) be, should (or would) have been, instead. When no condition is 
expressed (as in the first example), the construction is sometimes called that 
of ideal certainty. 

279. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, be- 
fore, until, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future 
and commonly expressing purpose or expectation. 1 

Take heed that he escape not. [Purpose.] 

Give him food lest he perish. [Purpose.] 

Let us tarry until he come. [Expectation or anticipation.] 

This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style. In 
ordinary language the indicative or a verb-phrase with may is used: as, — 
" Take heed that he does not escape " ; " Give him food in order that he may 
not perish " ; " Let us wait till he comes." 

280. The past subjunctive had is common in had rather and 
similar phrases. 

I had rather wait a day. 

You had better leave the room. 

He had as lief go as stay. 

Note. Had in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or 
inelegant; but the idiom is well-established. Might better, would better, and 
would rather may be used instead of had better, etc. ; but would better is 
improper in the first person. 

281 . The subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases 
containing the auxiliaries may, might, could, would, should. 

1. In wishes (§ 272). 

May you live long and prosper ! 

May he never repent this act ! 

Ah, could I but live a hundred years ! 

1 The subjunctive denoting expectation is often called the anticipatory 
subjunctive. For shall in a similar use, see § 297. 



POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES 93 

2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 274-275). 

f 1 1 
Thought you {should fail, there would still be hope. 

I he J 

f 1 1 
If < you > should fail, all would be lost. 

I he J 

3. In sentences expressing not what is or was, but what 
would be or would have been, the case (§ 278). 

I should "I 

You would y write to Charles if I knew his address. 

He would J 

It would have been better to telegraph. 

We should have been sorry to miss your call. 

4. In subordinate clauses introduced by that, lest, before, 
until, etc. (§ 279). 

I will take care that nothing may prevent. 

I took care that nothing \ _ , , }■ prevent. 
° i should J 

The general determined to wait until fresh troops should arrive. 

They strained every nerve to reach harbor before the storm should 

break. 

POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES 

USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES 

282. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating 
ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity. 

Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, w phrases 
of possibility." 

The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are : — may, can, 
mast, might, could, would, and should. They are called modal 
auxiliaries and are followed by the infinitive without to. 

We may ask a few questions. He might give you a chance. 

I can manage a motor car. I could tell if he would permit. 

You must inquire the way. I should enjoy a sea-voyage. 

This town must be Hudson. We should like to meet your friend. 



94 



VERBS 



283. Potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjuga- 
tion. They are often called, collectively, the potential mood. 



Active Voice 
Present Tense 



singular 

1. I may strike. 1 

2. Thou may st strike. 

3. He may strike. 



1. I might strike. 2 

2. Thou mightst strike. 

3. He might strike. 



PLURAL 

1. We may strike. 

2. You may strike. 

3. They may strike. 



Past Tense 



1. We might strike. 

2. You might strike. 

3. They might strike. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. I may have struck. 3 1. We may have struck. 

2. Thou mayst have struck. 2. You may have struck. 

3. He may have struck. 3. They may have struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. I might have struck. 4 1. We might have struck. 

2. Thou mightst have struck. 2. You might have struck. 

3. He might have struck. 3. They might have struck. 



I may be struck, etc. 



I might be struck, etc. 



Passive Voice 

Present Tense 

We may be struck, etc. 

Past Tense 

We might be struck, etc. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 
I may have been struck, etc. We may have been struck, etc. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 
I might have been struck, etc. We might have been struck, eta 



1 So I can strike, etc. 

2 So 7 could strike, etc. 



3 So I can have struck, etc. 

4 So / could have struck, etc. 



POTENTIAL VERB-PHEASES 95 

284. Can (past tense, could) regularly indicates capability 
or possibility. 

John can ride a bicycle. Can such things happen ? 

Harry could swim. It cannot be ! 

285. May (past tense, might) indicates (1) permission, (2) 
possibility or doubtful intention, (3) a wish. 

1. You may borrow my pencil. 

I told him that he might join our party. 

2. He may accept my offer. 
You might not like it. 

3. May good fortune attend you ! 

286. In asking permission, the proper form is " May I ? " 
not M Can I ? " With negatives, however, can is more common 
than may, except in questions. Thus, — 

Question. May I (or may n't I) play ball this morning ? 
Answer. No, you cannot ; but you may play this afternoon. 

287. Must expresses necessity or obligation. 

We must all die sometime. You must wait for the train. 

288. Ought denotes obligation or propriety. With the present 
infinitive ought expresses a present duty or obligation ; with the 
perfect (or past) infinitive, a past duty or obligation. Should is 
often used in the same sense. 

I ought to write that letter. [Present.] 

You ought not to object. [Present.] 

This roof ought to be mended. [Present.] 

I ought to have known better. [Past.] 

Your dog ought not to have been unleashed. [Past.] 

You should be careful. [Present.] 

The garden should have been weeded yesterday. [Past.] 

Had should never be prefixed to ought. 

You ought to stay at home. [Not : You had ought.] 

We oughtn't to make so much noise. [Not : We hadn't ought.] 

John ought to begin, oughtn't he ? [Not : hadn't he ?] 



96 VEEBS 

289. Should and ought sometimes express natural likelihood, 

that is, what would certainly be expected in the case supposed. 

T£ ,, , . . ,. , (should 1 
If the tram is on time, he-< , , , ^arrive at six. 
^ ought to j 

290. Would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual 
action in the past. 

I (he) would gaze at the sea for hours at a time. 

SPECIAL EULES FOR SHOULD AND WOULD 

291. Should is the past tense of shall, and would is the past 
tense of will. 1 Hence the rules for should and would are similar 
to those for shall and will (§§ 232-237). 

I. IN SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES 

292. Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the 
distinction between should and would is practically the same 
as that between shall and will. 

293. Common errors are the use of I would for I should in 
assertions, and that of Would I? and Would you ? for Should 
I? and Should you ? in questions. 

The correct forms are shown in the following sentences. 

I. / should (we should) and I would (we would) in assertions: — 

1. I should break my neck if I fell. 

2. I should, hesitate to try this experiment. 

3. I shouldn't wonder if he escaped. 

4. We should regret any misunderstanding. 

5. I should wish to examine the plans again before deciding. 

6. I should be glad to accept any fair offer. 

7. I would give rive dollars for a ticket. 

8. I would help you if I could. 

9. I would never agree to such a proposition. 

10. We would rather die than surrender. (See § 280.) 

11. We would pay our bill to-day if we had the money. 

12. I would gladly accept any fair offer. 

1 Accordingly such a phrase as " I should fall " is sometimes called the past 
future, and " I should have fallen " the past future perfect tense. 



SHOULD AND WOULD 97 

In the first six examples, I (or we) should is correct, because the aux- 
iliary gives no suggestion of the speaker's will (or volition). In the 
last six, on the contrary, the speaker's willingness or desire is plainly 
expressed by the auxiliary, and I (or we) would is therefore used. 

Note. In such sentences as the fifth, — "I should wish to examine the plans 
again before deciding," — wish expresses volition. Hence " I would wish " is 
incorrect, for it expresses volition twice and can mean only "I desire to wish." 
On the same principle we say " I should prefer," " I should be glad," etc. 

Sometimes either i" would or / should may be used, but with a difference in 
meaning. Thus, in the eighth example, " I should help you " might be substi- 
tuted for " I would help you." This change, however, makes the remark sound 
less cordial and sympathetic ; for I should (unlike / would) gives no hint of 
the speaker's desire to be of service. 

II. Should L (or we) ? in questions : — 

1. Should I break my neck if I fell ? 

2. Should I be poisoned if I ate those berries ? 

3. Should I take cold without my overcoat ? 

4. Should I disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson ? 

5. Should we run aground if we missed the channel ? 

III. Should you ? and Would you ? in questions : — 

1. Should you drown if the boat were to capsize ? [Yes, I should 
drown, for I do not know how to swim.] 

2. Should you despair if this plan were a failure ? [No, I should not, 
for I have other resources.] 

3. Should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough ? [Yes, 
I should think so.] 

4. Should you be offended if I were to speak frankly ? [No, I should 
not be offended.] 

5. Should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding ? 
[Yes, I should (see note under I, above).] 

6. Would you wear a hat or a cap ? [I would wear a cap if I were you.] 

7. Would you study Greek if you were in my place ? [Yes, I would.] 

8. Would you .accept my apology if it were offered ? [Certainly, I 
would accept it gladly.] 

9. Would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses ? [Certainly 
I would lend them, if I had not lost them.] 

10. Would you allow me to use your name as a reference ? [I would.] 

The choice between should and would in these sentences 
corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 236). 



98 VEEBS 

The chief occasions on which Would you ? is correct are : 
— (1) in asking advice in a matter of doubt, and (2) in asking 
consent or permission. In examples 6 and 7 in § 293, III, the 
speaker asks advice ; in 8, 9, and 10, he asks consent or 
permission. 

294. Note that the proper forms are I should like, Should 
I like ? and Should you like ? 

I should like to read that book. 
Should I like to go to Rome ? Indeed, I should. 

Should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue ? [I should like to 
receive one.] 

Note. Would is very common in these phrases, even among writers of 
repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for should is the 
same as in / should wish (§ 293, I, note) . 

Fd and we 'd are contractions of i" would and we would. Hence they can 
never stand for i" should and we should (§ 234) . 

295. Should in the second and third persons may be used in 
simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to ex- 
press the will of the speaker (§ 237). 

Such waste is almost criminal. In my kitchen it should never be 
allowed. [That is ; I would take care that it should not.] 

If I had my way, you should be prosecuted. [That is : I would take 
care that you were prosecuted.] 

If I were you, she should not regret her generosity. [Compare : She 
shall not regret it.] 

n. SHOULD AND WOULD IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

296. In some kinds of subordinate clauses, the rise of should 
and would differs considerably from that in simple sentences 
and principal clauses. 

The following classes require attention : — (1) clauses of 
purpose or expectation (§ 297), (2) conditional and concessive 
clauses (§ 298), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of 
the subject (§ 299), (4) clauses stating something as an idea 
(§ 300), (5) indirect discourse (§ 425). 



SHOULD AND WOULD 99 

297. In subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expec- 
tation * with which anything is done, shall and should are used 
in all three persons. 

Carleton took great pains thaw you y should understand the details 
of the treaty. [they j 

Scott J 1S > very careful that nothing < s , a , , ^interfere with his plans. 
I^wasj ^should) 

f 1 1 

They took every precaution lest^ you y should suspect the plot. 

Ue J 

Anderson waited patiently until «( you y should arrive with the horses. 

[they) 
We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break. 
We will endeavor to complete the business before the time for adjourn- 
ment shall arrive. 

298. In conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future 
supposed case doubtfully, shall and should are used in all three 
persons ; but ivill and would are proper when the subject is 
thought of as wishing or consenting. 



l if J 2/o 



1. What would happen if < you y should not obey this order ? 
[he J , 

2. If < you V should miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed. 

Ue J 

3. Whoever j s ^ a " \ violate this law j ^\ A } pay the penalty. [That 
is : If anybody shall violate, etc.] 

4. Whenever i you y shall find an opportunity, let us try the expert 

[he J 
ment. [That is : If ever I shall find, etc.] 

5. He promised to assist you whenever you should need help. [When- 
ever = if ever.] 



(we ^ 



6. Though^ you y should fail, others would make the attempt. [Con- 
cession.] i they } 

1 The shall or should of expectation is sometimes called anticipatory. See 
p. 92, footnote. 



100 VEEBS 

7. Though Evans should disappoint me, I should not lose confidence 
in him. f'l "1 

8. Vernon will do his part if *j you I will cooperate with him. 

(I ] [they J 

9. If -| you ywill only make the effort, success is certain. 

[he J CI -] 

10. Edmund would reveal the secret if < you V would assist him in his 
search for the treasure. I they J 

11. If we would take pains, our parents would be satisfied. 

12. Whoever will join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable 
journey. [That is : If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.] 

When a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as cer- 
tain, will may be used in the second and third persons to 
denote mere futurity. 

Though J ^ u Vwill certainly fail, j £ iniay make the attempt. 
Though the ship will not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats. 

299. Shall and should are often used in the second and 
third persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which 
is not that of the subject. 

Templeton insists that you shall accompany him. 
We gave orders that the gates should be closed. 

My wish is that J ^ ou I should remain at home. 

The law prescribed when and to- whom the tax should be paid. 

300. "When a clause with that states something, not as a 
fact but as an idea to be considered, should is the proper 
auxiliary in all three persons. 

I am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult. 
[That is: "When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surpris- 
ing." In "I am not surprised that you find" etc., the subordinate clause 
makes the statement as a fact.] 

It is strange that Tom should neglect his swimming lessons. [Con- 
trast : It is strange that Tom neglects.'] 

That Napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Con- 
trast : That Napoleon chafed.] 

For shall and will, should and would, in indirect discourse, see § 425. 



INFINITIVES 101 

THE INFINITIVE 

301. The infinitive is a verb-form that has some of the proper- 
tics of a noun (§ 2S). Its two-sided character comes out clearly 
when it is used as the subject of a sentence. 

1. To hope is our only resource. 3. To choose wisely was difficult. 

2. To flatter is not my custom. 4. To scale the wall was easy. 

Each of these infinitives (to hope, to flatter, etc.) is a noun, 
for each is the subject of a sentence. An ordinary noun may 
be substituted with no change in meaning ; as, — " Hope is our 
only resource " ; " Flattery is not my custom." 

But each of these infinitives is also a verb, — for (1) it 
expresses action ; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in 
No. 3 ; (3) it takes an object if it is transitive, as in No. 4. 

An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no sub- 
ject 1 and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it 
is not bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb 
with its subject (§ 220). Erom this fact it derives its name, 
infinitive, which means w unrestricted " or w free from limitations. " 

302. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a 
noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without 
person or number. 

It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the 
sign of the infinitive. 

To is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so regarded 
for convenience. 

303. The infinitive often lacks to, especially in verb-phrases 
with the auxiliaries will, shall, may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, do, did. For examples, see pp. 76, 86, 93-95. 

304. The infinitive has two tenses, — the present and the 
perfect (or past). 

1. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form, usu- 
ally preceded by to : as, — to live, to teach, to bind, to strike. 

1 For infinitive clauses, in which the infinitive has a subject, see § 316. 



102 VERBS 

2. The perfect (or past) infinitive is made by prefixing the 
infinitive of the auxiliary verb have to the past participle 
(§ 239) : as, — to have lived, to have taught, to have bound, to 
have struck. 

305. An infinitive may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial 
phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

To write legibly is a valuable accomplishment. 

To dive among those weeds would be folly. [Adverbial phrase.] 

Theodore promises to come when I send for him. [Adverbial clause.] 

No modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive. 

I beg you to inquire carefully. [Not : to carefully inquire.] 
I expect always to be poor. [Not : to always be poor.] 

306. The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows. 

I long to visit Italy. [Italy is the direct object of to visit.] 
To give him money is useless. [Money is the direct object of to give, 
and him the indirect object.] 

307. The infinitive is used (1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective 
modifier or adverbial modifier, (3) in the infinitive clause. 

I. THE INFINITIVE AS A NOUN 

308. An infinitive, with or without a complement or modifiers, may 
be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as 
an appositive. 

To descend was extremely difficult. [Subject.] 

To secure a seat was impossible. 

To sing well requires practice. 

His delight was to travel. [Predicate nominative.] 

To decide was to act. [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second 
is a predicate nominative.] 

Both alternatives, to advance and to retreat, seemed equally hazardous. 
[Apposition with the subject.] 

My first plan, to tunnel under the wall, proved a failure. 

He has but one aim in life, to succeed. [Apposition with the object.] 

I have written with a definite purpose, to dissuade you. 

I give you three choices, — to buy, to lease, or to build. 



INFINITIVES 103 

309. An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition 
with the expletive subject it. 

It was a pleasure to see him. [Instead of : To see him was a pleasure.] 

In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with it, is 
really the subject of the thought (see § 224,2). 

310. The infinitive may be used as the object of the preposi- 
tions but, except, about. 

There was nothing to do but walk (or to walk). 

He will do anything except resign (or except to resign). 

We are about to object. [An idiom expressing futurity.] 

311. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation 

(§ 83, 4). 

To sleep ! perchance to dream ! 

O to have lived in the brave days of old ! [A wish.] 

II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER 

312. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or 
as an adverbial modifier of an adjective. In this use the infinitive is 
said to depend on the word which it modifies. 

With Nouns With Adjectives 

(Adjective Modifier) (Adverbial Modifier) 

An opportunity to advance came. The men are ready to advance. 

Determination to win brings success. John is eager to win. 

Willingness to oblige makes friends. I shall be glad to oblige you. 

His anxiety to please us was laughable. He is anxious to please everybody. 

313. The infinitive without to may be used as an adjective 
modifier after the direct object of see, hear, feel, and some 
other verbs of like meaning. 

I saw the policeman arrest him. 

Hear the sea roar ! 

Can you feel the ground tremble ? 

In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare 
*'I heard him shout" with "I heard him shouting." Hence the substantive 
may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the 
construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 315-316). 



104 VEEBS 

314. An infinitive may modify a verb (i) by completing its mean- 
ing, or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action. 

I. Complementary Infinitive 

The ship began to roll. The officer had to watch him. 

The rain continued to fall. The prisoners tried to escape. 

Every boy desires to succeed. You promised to come to-night. 

II. Infinitive of Purpose 

I went to Paris to study art. Elsa looked to see who came. 

He opened his lips to speak. He signalled to stop the train. 

She turned away to avoid me. Harold waited to help his aunt. 

Both, the complementary infinitive and the infinitive of purpose 
may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb. 

Note. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a 
pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus, — "I desire to see you " 
(compare "I desire a sight of you"). It is simpler, however, to regard all 
such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. 
For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after 
certain adjectives (as in "I am eager to see you") from its construction 
after such verbs as wish and desire. 



III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 

315. A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that- 
clause as the object of a verb. Thus, — 

r that he should go. 



I wished s 7 

ihim to go. 

In the first sentence, the noun clause that he should go is the 
object of wished; in the second, this clause is replaced by 
him to go, but with no change in meaning. This expression 
consists of two parts: — (1) him, a pronoun in the objective 
case, replacing the subject he ; and (2) an infinitive to go, re- 
placing the predicate should go. Thus it is plain that him to 
go is also a noun clause, of which him is the subject, and to go 
the predicate. Such an expression is called an infinitive clause. 



THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 105 

316. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective 
case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain 
verbs. 

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said 
to be the subject of the infinitive. 

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, command- 
ing, advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believ- 
ing, declaring, and perceiving. 1 Thus, — 

The colonel commanded them to charge [= that they should charge]. 

I believe him to be trustworthy [ = that he is trustworthy] . 

The judge declared him to be a dangerous man [= that he was, etc.]. 

After a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infini- 
tive clauses. 

Mr. Esmond bade his servant pack a portmanteau and get horses. 
[Compare : ordered his servant to pack, etc.] 

What makes him cry ? [Compare : What causes him to cry ?] 
I let him sleep. [Compare : I allowed him to sleep.] 

Note. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no subject 
(§ 301). The infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar exception, for him to go 
(§ 315) makes an assertion as clearly as that he should go does. That him 
is really the subject of to go and not the object of wished is manifest, for 
I wished him makes no sense. The object of wished is the whole clause 
(him to go). 

317. A predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is 
in the objective case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive. 

Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with 
the predicate nominative (§ 83, 2). 

Predicate Pronoun after to be Predicate Nominative 

I believed it to be her. I believed that it was she. 

We know the author to be him. We know that the author is he. 

The author is known to be he. 
He thought Richard to be me. He thought that Richard was I. 

Richard was thought to be I. 

1 After verbs of wishing, etc., they express purpose (§ 391) ; after verbs of 
believing, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§ 418). 



106 VERBS 

Note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in 
the following sentences : — 

A boy whom I thought to be honest deceived me. [ Whom is the subject 
of the infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case.] 

A boy who, I thought, was honest deceived me. [Who is the subject 
of was and is therefore nominative. I thought is parenthetical (§ 466).] 

A boy whom I believe to be him just passed me. 

A boy who, I believe, was he, just passed me. 

318. An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition 
for. ThuS,— 

I wrote for him to come. [The clause him to come is the object of for ; 
him is the subject of to come.] 

319. An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, 
as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition. 

For us to delay would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare : Our 
delay would be fatal.] 

Our best plan is for the boat to shoot the rapids. [Predicate nominative 
agreeing with the subject plan.] 

I see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology. 
[Compare : except the offer of an apology on their part.] 

PAETICIPLES 

320. Certain words unite in themselves some of the prop- 
erties of adjectives with some of the properties of verbs. Such 
words are called participles (§ 32). 

321. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which 
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in 
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive. 

Who thundering comes on blackest steed ? — Byron. 

Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood. — De Quincey. 

Deserted, surrounded, outnumbered, and with everything at stake, he 
did not even deign to stand on the defensive. — Mac aula y. 

Shrouded in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen 
in clear azure splendor, enlightening the world. — Carlyle. 



PAETICIPLES 107 

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES 

322. Verbs have three participles, — the present, the past, 
and the perfect. 

323. The present participle ends in -ing. It usually describes 
one action as taking place at the same time with another. 

Tom came sauntering up the path. 

The beggar shambled down the steps, grumbling. 

Beaching for the flower, I lost my balance. 

324. The present participle often refers to time preceding 
that denoted by the predicate verb. 

Rising from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.] 

325. The past participle is always associated with the idea of past 
time or completed action. 

1. The past participle of a regular (or weak) verb has the same form 
as the past tense. 1 

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle 

I mend chairs. I mended the chairs. The chairs are mended. 

I sweep the rooms. I swept the rooms. The rooms are swept. 

I seek treasure. I sought treasure. Treasure is sought. 

I lose money. I lost money. The money is lost. 

2. The past participle of many irregular verbs shows a change 
from the vowel of the present tense. Most of these had originally the 
ending en (n) in the past participle, but this ending has been lost in 
many verbs. 2 

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle 

He speaks. He spoke. (He has) spoken. 

He draivs. He drew. (He has) drawn. 

He sings. > He sang. (He has) sung. 

326. The perfect participle (or phrasal past participle) is made by 
prefixing having (passive, having been) to the past participle. 

Active : Having mended the watch, I sent it to the owner. 
Passive : Having been mended, the watch was as good as new. 

1 The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling. 2 See pp. 209-215. 



108 VEEBS 

327. The present participle is used in forming the progressive 
verb-phrases (§§ 251-254) : — as, w He was running. 7 ' 

The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses 
(§§ 238-240) and the passive voice (§ 243). 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES 

328. Since the participle has adjective properties, its con- 
structions are in the main like those of adjectives. 

329. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it 
describes or limits. 

Rupert, missing his companion, stepped to the door. [The present 

participle missing belongs to the subject Rupert. ,] 

Rising, she opened the window. [Rising belongs to she.] 

I heard the rain falling. [Falling belongs to the object rain.] 

Tom's arm, broken by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle 

broken belongs to the subject arm.] 

Having climbed the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The 

perfect participle having climbed belongs to the subject I.] 

330. A participle should not be used without some substantive to 
which it may belong. 

Right : Entering the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle 
entering belongs to the pronoun we.] 

Wrong : Entering the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is 
no substantive to which entering can belong, it has no construction.] 

Apparent exceptions are concerning, considering, pending, 
generally speaking, etc. The first three may be classed as 
prepositions (§ 347), the last as an independent participle. 

We fought every day, and, generally speaking, twice every day. — 
De Quincey. 

331. A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, 
or an adverbial clause. 

Smiling brightly, she extended her hand. [Adverb.] 

He leaped forward, shrieking with all his might. [Adverbial phrase.] 

Laughing until he cried, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause .1 



NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE 109 

332. A participle may take an object if its meaning allows. 

I found the old man mending his net. 

Giving me a friendly nod, he passed on. [Here nod is the direct object 
of giving, and me is the indirect object.] 

The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to 
it, is sometimes called a participial phrase. 

333. A participle may be used as a pure adjective. 

A grinning boy confronted me. Kate had a broken doll. 

A battered hat hung on the peg. He was struck by a spent ball. 

He is & finished speaker. I have found the stolen goods. 

334. The past participle is often used as a predicate adjective 
expressing state or condition. 

This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. 
The distinction may be seen in the following examples : — 

The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck 
us we were drenched by it. 

When the rain at last ceased, we were drenched [that is, very ivet] . 

In the first sentence, were drenched is the past passive of the verb 
drench (compare the active "every time a gust of wind struck us, it 
drenched us "). In the second, the participle drenched expresses mere con- 
dition, and is therefore a predicate adjective. The distinction, however, 
is not always sharp, and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken 
together as a passive verb. 



Nominative Absolute 

335. A substantive, with a participle attached, is often used 
to make an adverbial phrase. 

The wind failing, 

On the failure of the wind, V we lowered the sail. 

When the wind failed, J 

Here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (on 
the failure of the wind) or an adverbial clause (when the wind 
failed). It defines the time of the action. 



110 PAETICIPIAL NOUNS 

336. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, 
or circumstances of an action. This is called the absolute construction. 
The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative 
absolute. 

My knife slipping, I cut myself severely. [The phrase my knife slip- 
ping is equivalent to because my knife slipped : it expresses cause.] 

Two days having elapsed, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics 
is equivalent to when two days had elapsed : it expresses time.] 

Evenings he read aloud, his wife knitting by his side. [The phrase 
expresses one of the circumstances that attended the reading.] 

This done, proceed to business. [The phrase this done is equivalent to 
the clause since (or when) this is done, and indicates cause or time.] 

337. The participle being is sometimes omitted in the abso- 
lute construction. 

His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight. 



YEEBAL NOUNS IN -ING (PAETICIPIAL NOUNS) 

338. English has a large and important class of verbal nouns 
that end in -ing, and that serve as the names of actions. 

These are identical in form with present participles, for which 
they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, 
for the present participle is never used as the name of an 
action. Hence no word in -ing that is a subject or an object, 
or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle. 

While I was travelling in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.] 
Travelling broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.] 
He enjoys travelling. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.] 
He spends his time in travelling. [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.] 

That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting 
ordinary nouns in their place. 

Travelling broadens the mind. Travel broadens the mind. 

Talking is useless. Talk is useless. 

He is afraid of falling. He is afraid of a fall. 

She understands cooking, 4 4 She understands cookery. 

Lying is cowardly. A falsehood is cowardly. 



PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 111 

339. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal 
noun in -ing. Such nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, 
but the construction of nouns. 

They are often called participial nouns. 

340. Verbal nouns in -ing have some properties of the verb. 

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their 
meaning allows. 

Digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure. 

Lending him money is useless. [Here the noun lending, which is the 
simple subject of the sentence, takes both a direct object {money) and an 
indirect object (him), precisely as the verb lend might do.] 

2. A verbal noun in -ing may (like a verb) take an adverbial modifier 
or may (like a noun) be modified by an adjective. 

Speaking extemporaneously is good practice. [Adverb.] 
Extemporaneous speaking is good practice. [Adjective.] 

3. To the verbal nouns being and having, past participles may be 
attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense. 

After being instructed in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king. 
There were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon. 
After having been treated so harshly, I had no wish to return. 

Such expressions are verbal noun-phrases. 

341. Verbal nouns in -ing are similar in some of their con- 
structions to infinitives used as nouns (§ 308). 

Infinitive as Noun Verbal Noun in -ing 

To swim was difficult. Swimming was difficult. 

My business is to make shoes. My business is making shoes. 

To see is to believe. Seeing is believing. 

Nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives in -ing or gerunds. 

342. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the 
adjective element in a compound noun (§ 60). 

The sleeping car was wrecked. 
Tom has plenty of spending money. 



112 PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 

343. When a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any 
other adjective, it cannot take an object. 

Shooting song-birds 1 . ^ ,.-,-. 

™ x. 4.- * ^ a Ms forbidden. 

The shooting of song-birds J 

Eating confectionery constantly U fcad for ^ ^^ 

Constant eating of confectionery J 

t»t u • ■ f driving wells. 

My business is-{ x - , ? . - .. 
l^the driving of wells. 

Observe that, in each instance, the object (song-birds, con- 
fectionery, wells) is replaced by a prepositional phrase when an 
article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun. 

Note. In such expressions as " I went a-nshing," a is a shortened form of 
the preposition on, and fishing is a verbal noun used as its object. When a is 
omitted, we have "I went fishing," "The house is building," and the like, 
in which the word in -ing seems to be a participle, but is really the object of 
the omitted a (— on). 

344. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used 
to limit a verbal noun in -ing. 

I was sure of its being he-. [Not : it.'] 

I heard of Allerts being elected. [Not : Allen.] 

Note. Many writers use the objective instead of the possessive when the 
possessive does not sound well: as, — "The very thought of her house being 
so cold made her shiver." In such cases, however, some other construction is 
preferable : as, — " The very thought of her cold house " or M that her house 
was so cold." 

345. Models for parsing verbs are given with the Exercises 
(pp. 185-190). 

Note. The modal forms (indicative, subjunctive, imperative) are predicative 
(that is, used as predicates), the non-modal forms, whether substantive (infini- 
tive, verbal in -ing) or adjective (participle), are non-predicative (except for the 
infinitive in the infinitive clause) . 



PKEPOSITIONS 



113 



CHAPTER VI 



PREPOSITIONS 



346. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its 
relation to some other word in the sentence. The substantive which 
follows a preposition is called its object and is in the objective case. 

A phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without 
other words, is called a prepositional phrase. Such a phrase may be 
either adjective or adverbial. 

On the floor lay a heap of nuts. 

From morning till night he remained at his post. 

The fire destroyed everything except a few articles of furniture. 

In the first example, of nuts is an adjective phrase modifying the noun 
heap, and on the floor is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb lay ; in 
the second, the predicate verb remained is modified by three adverbial 
phrases. 



347. The following 

aboard 

about 

above 

according- to 

across 

after 

against 

along, along with 

amid, amidst 

among, amongst 

apart from 

around 

as for, as to 

at 

athwart 

barring 

because of 

before 

behind 

below 

beneath 



list includes most of the prepositions : — . 

from between 
from under 



beside, besides 

between, betwixt 

beyond 

but (= except) 

by 

by dint of 

by means of 

by reason of 

by virtue of 

by way of 

concerning 

considering 

despite 

down 

during 

ere 

except, excepting 

for 

for the sake of 

from 

from among 



in accordance with 

in addition to 

in case of 

in compliance with 

in consequence of 

in consideration of 

in front of 

in lieu of 

in opposition to 

in place of 

in preference to 

in regard to 

in spite of 

inside (inside of) 

instead of 

into 

notwithstanding 

of, off 



114 



PREPOSITIONS 



on 

on account of 

out of 

outside (outside of) 

over 

over against 

past 

pending 

regarding 

respecting 



round 

round about 

save, saving 

since 

through 

throughout 

to, unto 

touching 

toward, towards 

under 



underneath 

until, till 

up 

upon 

with 

with reference to 

with regard to 

with respect to 

within 

without 



Such expressions as by means of, in accordance with, in spite of, etc., are 
really phrases, but may be regarded as compound prepositions to distinguish 
thern from the simple prepositions (by, from, etc.). 

Per is confined to the strictly commercial style except in such expressions 
as perforce, per cent, per annum. For a in abed, asleep, etc., see § 343, note. 

348. A preposition may stand at the end of a sentence o:t 

clause. 

Whom did you ask for f [Compare : For whom did you ask ?] 
The box which it came in has been destroyed. 

Note. This order, though informal, is common in the best authors ; but, 
if carelessly used, it may result in awkwardness of style. 



349. Care is needed when pronouns are objects of prepositions. 

He has been very friendly to you and me. [Not : you and I.] 
He will divide the reward between you and him. 



Whom are you waiting for ? "1 



Whom were you speaking to ? j 



!^[Not: Who.] 



350. Several words are used either as adverbs or as prepositions. 



I fell down. [Adverb.] 
Stand by ! 

A big dog ran behind. 
Keep off! 



I fell down the steps. [Preposition.] 
He stood by the window. 
A dog ran behind the carriage. 
Keep off the grass. 



Other examples are : — aboard, above, after, along, before, below, be- 
neath, beside, between, beyond, ere, in, inside, on, outside, past, round, 
since, under, up, within, without. 



For words used either as prepositions or as conjunctions, see pp. 116-117. 



CONJUNCTIONS 115 

CHAPTER VII 
CONJUNCTIONS 

351. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. They are either 
coordinate or subordinate. 

1. A coordinate (or coordinating) conjunction connects words or groups 
of words that are independent of each other. 

1. Hay and grain are sold here. 

2. Will you take tea or coffee ? 

3. He was pale but undaunted. 

4. The messenger replied courteously but firmly. 

5. The troops embarked rapidly but without confusion. 

6. Noon came, and the task was still unfinished. 

7. We must hide here until night falls and the street is deserted. 

In examples 1-4, the conjunction (and, or, but) connects single words 
in the same construction (subjects, objects, predicate adjectives, adverbs). 
In the fifth sentence, but connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase 
(both being modifiers of the verb embarked). In the sixth, and joins the 
two coordinate clauses of a compound sentence (§ 44). In the seventh, 
and joins two coordinate clauses which, taken together, make up the 
subordinate clause until . . . deserted; this may therefore be called a 
compound subordinate clause (§ 474) . 

2. A subordinate (or subordinating) conjunction connects a subordi- 
nate clause with the clause on which it depends. 

Harmon did not quail, though he saw the danger. 

Take this seat, if you prefer. 

I hesitated because I remembered your warning. 

352. The chief coordinate conjunctions are: — 



and (both . . . and) 


moreover 


not only . . . but also 


therefore 


or (either . . . or) 


then 


nor (neither . . . nor) 


yet 


but 


still 


for 


nevertheless 


however 


notwithstanding 



116 CONJUNCTIONS 

353. Then is an adverb when it denotes time, a conjunction 
when it denotes consequence or the like. 

Then the boat glided up to the pier. [Time.] 

Men are imperfect creatures : we must not, then, expect them to be 
angels. [Consequence.] 

354. Yet and still are adverbs when they express time or 
degree, conjunctions when they connect. 

We have not started yet. [Time.] 

It is still raining. [Time.] 

This hatchet is dull, but that is duller still. [Degree.] 

I miss him, yet I am glad he went. [Conjunction.] 

I like dogs ; still I do not care to own one. [Conjunction.] 

355. For and notwithstanding may be either prepositions or 
conjunctions. 

Prepositions Conjunctions 

I am waiting for you. We must go, for it is late. 

Jane is coming, notwithstanding It is a hard storm. She will come, 

the storm. notwithstanding. 

Note. For is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction, but the 
fact that it may be used to begin an independent sentence (even when such a 
sentence opens a paragraph) justifies its inclusion among the coordinates. 

358. The chief subordinate conjunctions are : — 



although, though 


if 




that 


as 


lest 




unless 


as if (as though) 


since ( = 


: because) 


whereas 


because 


than 




whether (whether 



.or) 

A few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions to distinguish 
them from simple conjunctions like though or as. Such are : — in order 
that, so that, provided that, in case that, but that, as if, as though, even if. 
Provided and in case (without that) may also be used as conjunctions: as, 
— "I will go, provided it does n't rain." 

357. The subordinate conjunction that is often omitted when 
it may readily be supplied: — "He said [that] he was starving." 



CONJUNCTION'S 117 

358. As and since in the sense of because, and while in the 
sense of though, are conjunctions. 

When denoting time, as is an adverb, while is a noun or an 
adverb, and since is an adverb or a preposition. 

As (or since) you will not listen, I will say no more. [Conjunction.] 
As we crossed the bridge, I looked down at the stream. , [Adverb.] 
Ten years have passed since my uncle went to sea. [Adverb.] 
The house has been empty since Christmas. [Preposition.] 

359. Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative con- 
junctions. The chief correlatives are : — 

both . . . and whether ... or 

not only . . . but also though (although) . . . yet (still) 

either ... or since . . . therefore 

neither . . . nor if . . . then 

Both lions and wolves are carnivorous. 

Either brass or copper will do. 

Neither Keats nor Shelley lived to be old. 

He asked me whether I was an Austrian or a Kussian. 

Though the roads were bad, yet he managed to reach Utica. 

Although he has wronged me, still I cannot believe he is my enemy. 

Since four is the square of two, therefore two is the square root of four. 

If Allen's testimony is true, then Gilbert's must be false. 

360. But is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense 
of but that or unless. 

There is no doubt but that they are murderers. — Shelley. 

Your uncle must not know but [= but that] you are dead. — Shakspere. 

Ne'er may I look on day but [= unless] she tells to your highness 
simple truth. — Shakspere. [This use is obsolete.] 

There was nobody but loved her. [He, subject of loved, is omitted. In 
such cases but is sometimes regarded as a relative pronoun.] 

361. Notwithstanding is used as a subordinate conjunction 
in the sense of though. 

I shall go, notwithstanding the road is said to be impassable. 

362. Relative adverbs are similar in their use to conjunctions, 
and are often called conjunctive adverbs (§§ 193-194). 



118 INTEEJECTIONS 

CHAPTER VIII 
INTERJECTIONS 

363. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing 
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. 

Examples: (or oh), ah, hullo (holloa, halloo), bah, pshaw, fie, 
whew, tut-tut, st (often spelled hist), ha, aha, ha ha, ho, hey, hum, hem, 
heigh-ho (heigh-o), alas, bravo, lo. 

Among interjections are included calls to animals (like "whoa!") and 
imitations of sounds such as "mew! " "cock-a-doodle-doo! " "ding dong! " 
" swish ! " " tu-whit-tu-whoo ! " 

364. Interjections "usually have no grammatical connection 
with the phrases or sentences in which they stand. Hence 
they are counted among the *• independent elements" of a 
sentence (§ 465). 

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by 
means of a preposition: — " for a camera! " " Alas for my hopes! " Such 
expressions are often regarded as elliptical sentences, as if " O for a camera ! " 
stood for " O, I wish for a camera ! " But it is better to treat them as exclama- 
tory phrases. 1 Other exclamatory phrases are "Dear me!" "Goodness 
gracious! " "O my! " and the like. 

365. Almost any part of speech may be used as an ex- 
clamation. 



Nonsense ! I do not believe it. 


Forward ! 


Fire ! 


On! 


I ! not a bit of it ! 


Away ! 


Halt ! 


Back, villains ! 


Good ! I like that ! 


But ! 



Such words are often called interjections, but it is better to describe them 
as nouns, adjectives, etc., used in exclamation. Thus nonsense ! andyfre/ are 
nouns in the exclamatory nominative; II is a pronoun in the same construc- 
tion; halt! is a verb in the imperative; good I is an adjective; forward! is 
an adverb ; but ! is a conjunction. 

1 Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 4) and the exclamatory nominative 

(§83,4). 



ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 119 

CHAPTER IX 
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH 

366. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and 
that contains a subject and a predicate. 

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46). 

367. According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate 
clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun clauses. 

368. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an 
adjective clause (§ 47). 

Able men ") 

Men of ability > can always find employment. 

Men who show ability J 

Treeless spots ^i 

Spots without trees > were plainly visible. 

Spots where no trees grew J 

In each of these groups, a noun (men, spots) is modified (1) by an 
adjective, (2) by an adjective phrase, (3) by an adjective clause. The 
sense remains unchanged. 

369. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by relative 
pronouns, (2) by relative adverbs of place (where, whence, iv hither, 
etc.) or time (when, ivhile, before, after, since, till, until). 

370. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is 
called an adverbial clause (§ 47). 

(thoughtlessly. [Adverb as a modifier.] 
Jack spoke ^j without thinking. [Adverbial phrase.] 
{^before he thought. [Adverbial clause.] 
r there. 
The schoolhouse stands H at the crossroads. 

L where the roads meet, 
(monthly. 
We pay our rent*! on the first of every month. 

[.when the first of the month comes. 



120 CLAUSES AS PAETS OF SPEECH 

371. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative 
adverbs (when, where, before, etc.) ; (2) by subordinate conjunctions 
(if, though, because, etc.) ; (3) by relative or interrogative pronouns. 

372. Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are 
also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs. 

Angry because he had failed, he abandoned the undertaking. [The 

clause modifies angry,] 

I am uncertain which road I should take. [The clause modifies uncertain.] 
Farther than eye could see extended the waste of tossing waters. [The 

clause modifies farther. ] 

373. An adverbial clause with that may be used to modify 
verbs and adjectives. 

He rejoiced that [= because] the victory was won. 

I am glad that you are coming. 

He was positive that no harm had been done. 

374. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 
(or substantive) clause (§47). 

Victory ~) 

To win [-was out of the question. 

That we should win J 

( loss. 
The merchant feared «; to lose. 

i. that he might lose money, 
f success. 
I expect^ to succeed. 

'{that I shall succeed. 

In each of these groups a noun is replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by 
a noun clause. In the first example, the noun clause is the subject ; in 
the others, it is the object of a verb. 

375. Noun clauses are used in all of the more important 
constructions of nouns : — (1) as subject, (2) as direct object of 
a transitive verb, (3) in apposition, (4) as predicate nominative. 

That Milton was spared has often caused surprise. [Subject.] 
Brutus said that Ccesar was a tyrant. [Object of said.] 
The traveller inquired where he could find the inn. [Object.] 



NOUN CLAUSES 121 

He asked me what my name was. [Second object of asked.] 
One fact is undoubted, — that the state of America has been kept in 
continual agitation. — Burke. [Apposition with fact.] 

The old saying is that misery loves company. [Predicate nominative.] 

376. Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordi- 
nate conjunctions that, whether (whether . . . or), and if (in 
the sense of whether) ; (2) by the interrogative pronouns who, 
which, tvhat ; (3) by the interrogative adverbs where, whence, 
whither, how, why, when (§ 195). 

377. Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1) of 
commanding, desiring, etc. (§ 395) ; (2) of telling, thinking, etc. 
(§§ 418-419) ; (3) of asking, doubting, etc. (§ 427). 

Object clauses frequently omit that (§357). For the infinitive clause re- 
placing a £/iaZ-clause as object, see §§ 315-316. 

378. A noun clause may be used as the retained object of a 
passive verb (§ 249). 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

(Clause as Object) (Retained Object) 

Charles told us that the ice was thin. We were told that the ice was thin. 
They asked me whether (or if) I I was asked whether I liked tennis, 
liked tennis. 

379. A noun clause may be the object of a preposition. 

I see no reason for a lawsuit except that both parties are stubborn. 
[Compare : except the stubbornness of both.] 

I could say nothing but [ = except] that I was sorry. 

She could see me from where she stood. 

There is a dispute as to which of the miners first staked out the claim. 

380. Noun clauses with that are common in the predicate 
when the expletive it is the grammatical subject (§ 224, 2). 

It was plain that war was at hand. 

It must be admitted that there were many extenuating circumstances. 

It was by slow degrees that Fox became a brilliant and powerful debater. 

In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause. This, how- 
ever, is grammatically in apposition with it, as if one said " It (that war was 
at hand) was plain." 



122 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

CHAPTER X 
THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

381. Subordinate clauses may express a variety of meanings, 
most of which come under the following heads : — (1) place or 
time, (2) cause, (3) concession, (4) purpose, (o) result, (6) condition, 
(7) comparison, 1 (8) indirect discourse, (9) indirect question. 

The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by 
the word which introduces it. 

I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME 

382. An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time. 

I. Adjective Clauses 

The house where the robbery occurred is No. 14. 

The bridge over which ice rode is in ruins. 

There is a point beyond which you cannot go. 

The clay when (or on which) I was to sail arrived at last. 

The day before you came was rainy. 

His terror while it thundered was pitiable. 

II. Adverbial Clauses 

Remain where I can see you. 

Whithersoever I go, fear dogs my steps. 

Whenever the bell rings, you must take down the receiver. 

Esmond heard the chimes as he sat in Ms own chamber. 

This old lady can read while she knits. 

I have lived in Cairo since my father died. 

383. Adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced 
by relative pronouns ; both adjective and adverbial clauses of 
place and time may be introduced by relative adverbs (see 
examples above). 

1 Including clauses of manner and degree (§§ 414-416). 



CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 123 

II-III. CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 

384. An adverbial clause may express cause or concession. 

385. Causal clauses are introduced by the subordinate con- 
junctions because, since, as, inasmuch as, and sometimes that. 

I came home because I was tired. 

As the day was clear, we decided to climb the mountain. 
Since you vrill not relent, you must take the consequences. 
Tom was delighted that his friend was safe. 

Since is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes time; as is an adverb 
when it denotes time. Both since and as are conjunctions when they express 
cause. For as used as a relative pronoun, see § 146. 

386. A concessive clause is usually introduced by a subordinate 
conjunction, though, although, or even if. It admits (or con- 
cedes), some fact or supposition in spite of which the assertion 
in the main clause is made. 

Although I do not like his manners, I respect his character. 

We won the game, though we expected to lose. 

Even if he were a king, he would not be satisfied. 

Though he should read books forever, he would not grow wise. 

387. The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, 
may be emphasized by means of yet, still, nevertheless. 

Although the task was heavy, yet his courage never failed. [Although 
and yet are correlative conjunctions (§ 359).] 

388. For the indicative and the subjunctive in concessive 
clauses, see § 274 ; for should and would, see § 298. 

389. A concessive clause may be introduced by the con> 
junction as, or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. 

Weak as I am, I will make the effort. 

Whatever you say, 1 

Whichever argument you present, y he will carry his point. 

However much you object, j 

390. Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive 
clause without a conjunction to introduce it (§ 276). 



124 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

IV-V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT 

391. A subordinate clause may express purpose or result. 

I. Clauses of Purpose 

These men died that we might live. 
I will take care that you are not harmed. 

We threw over our ballast, so that the airship might clear the trees. 
All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, in 
order that the ship may be launched promptly and without accident. 

II. Clauses of Result 

He has recovered his strength, so that he can now work. 
Quentin started so suddenly that he almost dropped his weapon. 
Their minds were so much embittered that they hated each other. 
You make such a noise that I cannot hear the music. 

392. Clauses of purpose may be introduced by tlie subordinate 
conjunction that or by a phrase containing it (so that, in order 
that, to the end that, etc.). Negative clauses of purpose may 
be introduced by that . . . not or by lest. Eor lest, see § 279. 

393. Clauses of result may be introduced by the phrase so 
that, consisting of the adverb so and the subordinate conjunc- 
tion that ; or by that alone, especially when so, such, or some 
similar word stands in the main clause. 

394. A clause of purpose or of result may be either an adverbial 
clause (as in § 391) or a substantive clause. 

I intend that you shall be elected. [Object.] 

My intention is that you shall be appointed. [Predicate nominative.] 

The result is that he is bankrupt. [Predicate nominative.] 

His exertions had this effect, that the vote ivas unanimous. [Appositive.] 

395. A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the 
object of a verb of commanding, desiring, or the like. 

The general ordered that the fort should be blown up. 
The prisoner begged that his fetters might be struck off. 

For clauses of purpose or expectation with shall or should, see § 297. 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 125 

396. Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with to or 
in order to, and result by the infinitive with to or as to. 

He left home to [or in order to] become a missionary. [Purpose.] 
He was kind enough to help me. [Result. Compare : He was so kind 
that he helped me.] 

He was so kind as to help me. [Result.] 

Negative result is often expressed by the adverb too and the infinitive: — 
'Iron is too heavy to float." [Compare : "Iron is so heavy that it does not 
float."] 

397. Purpose may be expressed by an infinitive clause (§ 316). 

The teacher intended us to finish the book. [Compare : The teacher 
intended that we should finish the book.] 

VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 

398. A clause that expresses a condition introduced by if, or by some 
equivalent word or phrase, is called a conditional clause. A sentence 
that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence. 1 

If it rains, we shall remain at home. 

I shall attend the convention if I am in town. 

I will take this book, if you please. 

399. A conditional sentence regularly consists of two parts : — 

(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced 
by if, and expressing the condition. 

(2) A main clause expressing the conclusion, that is, the 
statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the 
i/-clause is true. 

Thus, in the first example in § 398, the conditional clause or condition is 
if it rains ; the conclusional clause or conclusion is we shall remain at home. 

Either the condition or the conclusion may come first. 
The conclusion of a conditional sentence may be declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 

If you go to Philadelphia, where shall you stay ? [Interrogative.] 

Sit here, if you wish. [Imperative.] 

If you win the prize, how glad I shall be ! [Exclamatory.] 

1 Since such a sentence is complex, it is often called a conditional complex. 



126 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

400. A conditional clause may be introduced by provided 
(that), granted that, supposing, on condition that. 

I will permit you to go, on condition that you come home early. 
You may have the money, provided you will put it in the bank. 
Supposing (or suppose) it rains, what shall we do ? 

Suppose is really an imperative and supposing a participle, the clause being 
the object. 

401 . A negative condition is introduced by if not or unless. 

I will wait for him, i/you do not object. 

Unless you overcome that habit, you will be ruined. 

402. Double (or alternative) conditions may be introduced by 
whether . . . or. 

Whether he goes or stays, he must pay a week's board. [Compare : If 
he goes or if he stays, etc.] 

He is determined to buy that car, whether you approve or not. [That 
is : if you approve or if you do not approve.] 

403. A conditional clause may be introduced by whoever, 
whenever, or some similar compound (§§ 157, 194). 

Whoever sins, is punished. [If anybody sins, he is punished.] 
Whomever you ask, you will be refused. [If you shall ask anybody.] 
He will come whenever [if ever] he is called. 

Note. The z/-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the con- 
clusion omitted : — " If I only had a rifle ! " 

404. A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion, 
a question, an imperative, an infinitive, or the absolute con- 
struction (§ 336). 

We take the receiver from the hook ; the operator answers. [Com- 
pare : If we take the receiver from the hook, etc.] 

Do you refuse ? Then you must take the consequences. 
Press that button — the bell will ring. 

To hear her laugh, you would think she could never be sad. 
We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting. 

Note. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause. Thus, in 
the first example, we have two independent coordinate clauses, making a com- 
pound sentence (§ 44) . All clauses (independent or dependent) that express a 
condition are sometimes called assumptive. 



FORMS OF CONDITIONS 127 

FORMS OF CONDITIONS 

405. Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but 
it is easy to classify them according to the time of the supposed 
case and the degree of doubt that the speaker expresses. 

406. Conditions may be present, past, or future. ^ 

Present and Past Conditions 

407. Present and past conditions may be either (1) non- 
committal (neutral) or (2) contrary to fact. 

1. A condition is non-committal (or neutral) when it implies 
nothing as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed. 

If James is angry, I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps not.] 

2. A condition is contrary to fact when it implies that the 
supposed case is not or was not true. 

If James were angry, I should be sorry. [James is not angry.] 

408. In a non-committal present condition, the i^-clause takes 
the present indicative ; in a non-committal past condition, the past, 
the perfect (present perfect), or the pluperfect (past perfect). 

The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows. 

I. Present Condition, Non-committal (or Neutral) 

r it is valuable. 

guard it carefully. 

you have made a great discovery. 

you will get a large sum for it. 

why are you so careless of it ? 
^ what a prize it is ! 



If this pebble is a diamond, 



II. Past Condition, Xon-committal (or Neutral) 

r it was valuable. 
V If that pebble was a diamond, 1 why did you throw it away? 

I go back and look for it. 
f he has done his duty. 
If Tom has apologized, -\ you ought to excuse him. 

L forgive him. 
If John had reached home before we started, he must have hurried. 



128 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit himself as 
to the truth of the supposed case. Perhaps the pebble was a diamond, 
perhaps not ; Tom may or may not have apologized ; whether or not 
John had reached home, we cannot tell. 

409. In a condition contrary to fact, the if -clause takes the 
past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time, 
the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time. 

The conclusion usually takes should or would (§ 281, 3), 
sometimes might, could, or ought. 

If John were here, I should recognize him. [Present condition, present 
conclusion.] 

If John were here, I should have recognized him before this. [Present 
condition, past conclusion.] 

If I had offended him, I should have regretted it. [Past condition, past 
conclusion.] 

If I had then offended him, I should regret it now. [Past condition, 
present conclusion.] 

If he were present, he might (or could) object. [Present condition, 
present conclusion.] 

If he had been present, he might (or could) have objected. [Past condi- 
tion, past conclusion.] 

In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies that the 
supposed case (or condition) is (or was) not a fact. It follows, of course, 
that the conclusion is not a fact : — John is not here ; therefore I do not 
recognize him. 

410. In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without 
if is common. In this use, the subject follows the verb (§ 276). 

Were he my friend, I should expect his help. [= If he were my friend. 
Present condition, contrary to fact.] 

Had he been my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he 
had been my friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.] 

Future Conditions 

411. Future conditions always imply doubt, for no one can tell 
what may or may not happen to-morrow. 

412. In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting 
future time is used in both clauses. 



FUTUEE CONDITIONS 129 

413. Future conditions are classed as more vivid and less 
vivid. 

1. A more vivid future condition suggests nothing as to the 
probability or improbability of the case supposed. The present 
indicative is regularly used in the if '-clause, and the future 
indicative in the conclusion. , 

If it rains to-morrow, I shall not go. 

In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with shall may be used in 
the z/-clause : as, — "If it shall rain to-morrow, I shall not go." 

The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the i/"-clause. This form 
commonly suggests more doubt than the present indicative : — "If it rain 
to-morrow, I shall not go." 

2. A less vivid future condition puts the supposed case rather 
vaguely, often with a considerable suggestion of doubt. A 
verb-phrase with should or would is used in both clauses. 

If it should rain to-morrow, I should not go. 

For the use of should or would in such clauses, see § 298. 

A phrase with were to may replace the should-phYa.se in the z/-clause. 
This form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt: — "If it were to rain 
to-morrow, I should not go." 

The past subjunctive may stand in the {/-clause instead of the should- 
phrase : — " If it rained to-morrow, I should not go." 

For even if in concessive clauses, see § 386 ; for as if in clauses of compari- 
son, see § 414. For if (in the sense of whether) in indirect questions, see § 428. 

VII. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 

414. An adverbial clause introduced by as (/"may express comparison. 1 

You speak as if you were angry. 

He breathes as if he were exhausted. 

She cared for me as if I had been her son. 

As though is also used, but as if is now preferred by most writers. 

Clauses with as i/"are elliptical in origin. Thus, "The man acts as if he 
were crazy" is equivalent to "The man acts as [he would act] if he were 
crazy." But it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing. 

415. The subjunctive ivere, not the indicative was, is used 
after as if (§ 277). 

1 Clauses introduced by as are often called clauses of manner. 



130 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

416. As and than, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce 
clauses of comparison or degree. 

You are as old as he [is] . He weighs as much as I [weigh] . 

I am younger than you [are]. I pity you more than [I pity] her. 

When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows as 
or than is in the same case in which it would stand if the 
verb were expressed. Thus, — 

You are stronger than he. [Not : than him.] 

They are wiser than we. [Not : than us.] 

I see you oftener than him. [Not : than he.] 

He plays a better game than I. [Not : than me.] 

They will miss John more than me. [That is : more than they miss me.] 

VIII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 

417. A quotation may be direct or indirect. 

A direct quotation repeats a speech or thought in its original form. 

I replied, fr I am sorry to hear it." 

" Henceforth," he explained, ff I shall call on Tuesdays." 

rr You must see California," she insisted. 

fr This mosaic pavement," said the guide, fr is Roman." * 

An indirect quotation repeats a speech or thought in substance, but 
usually with some change in its form. 

An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate 
clause dependent on some word of saying or thinking, and 
introduced by the conjunction that. 

I replied that I was sorry to hear it. [Direct : I am sorry.] 
He explained that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays. 
She insisted that I must see California. 
The guide said that this mosaic pavement was Roman. 

A direct quotation begins with a capital letter, unless it is a fragment of a 
sentence. It is regularly enclosed in quotation marks. An indirect quotation 
begins with a small letter. It usually has no quotation marks. 

1 In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the 
verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive) ; and if it forms a 
complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not proper 
to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause. 



INDIRECT DISCOUESE 131 

418. A substantive clause introduced by that may be used with verbs 
and other expressions of telling, thinking, knowing, and perceiving, to report 
the words or thought of a person in substance, but usually with some 
change of form. Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse. 

For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct 
quotation) is said to be in the direct discourse. 

419. Statements in indirect discourse, being substantive clauses, 
ma} 7- be used in various noun constructions : (1) as object of some 
verb of telling, thinking, or the like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate 
nominative, (4) as appositive. 

He said that the box was empty. [Object.] 

That the box was empty was all lie could say. [Subject.] 

My remark was that the bill is a menace. [Predicate nominative.] 

His remark, that the bill is a menace, is absurd. [Apposition.] 

420. The conjunction that is often omitted. 

Jack said [that] he was sorry. 

421. In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect 
tense, the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past, 
and the perfect becomes pluperfect ; but a general truth remains 
in the present tense. 

1. Direct : I am tired. 

Indirect : John -I , , . ■, Khat he was tired. 

2. Direct : I have won. 



Indirect: John-j , . ., }> that he had won. 



3. Direct : Air is a gas. [General truth.] 

Indirect : I told him that air is [not was] a gas. 

422. The clause with that in indirect discourse is sometimes 
replaced by an infinitive clause (§ 316). 

The jury declared that he was innocent. 

The jury declared him to be innocent. [Him is the subject of the infini- 
tive, not the object of declared.] 



132 MEANINGS "OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 

423. When the verb of telling or thinking is in the passive 
voice, three constructions occur : — 

1. A clause ^th thcfcis the subject of the passive verb. 

That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported. 

2. The expletive it is used as the grammatical subject, and 
a that-cl^use follows the passive verb. 

It is commoitly reported that Rogers desires the office. 

3. The subject of the t hat-clause becomes the subject of the 
passive verb, and the verb of the clause becomes an infinitive. 

Rogers is^ commonly reported to desire the office. 

Note. The third (ft these idioms is of ten called the personal construction, 
to distinguish it from the second, in which the grammatical subject is the 
expletive it (§ 224, 2). The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as 
a peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb. 

424. A substantive clause with that is common after it seems, 

it is true, it is evident, and similar expressions. 

It seems that Robert has lost all his money. "-'V 

It is true that genius does not aluwtys*bring happiness with it. 

This construction is really the same as that in § 423, 2. 

425. The uses of shall and will, should and would, in indirect 
discourse are the same as in direct, with ope* exception : — 

When the first person with shall or should in direct discourse becomes 
the second or third person in the indirect, shall or should is retained. 

Direct : You say, ff I shall die." You said, fr I shall die." 

Indirect : You say that you shall die. You said that you should die. 

Direct : He says, ff I shall die." He said, ff I shall die." 

Indirect : He says that he shall die. He said that he should die. 

The change from shall to should is merely a change in the tense of the 
auxiliary verb (§ 421 ) . 

IX. INDIRECT QUESTIONS 

426. A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is 
called a direct question. 

ff What is your name ? " he asked. 



INDIRECT QUESTIONS 133 

427. An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct question 
in the form of a subordinate clause. 

Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, 
doubting, thinking, perceiving, and the like. 

He asked what my name was. [Direct question : What is your name ?] 

Franklin asked where the difficulty lay. [Direct question : Where does 
the difficulty lie ?] 

The sergeant wondered how he should escape. [Direct question : How 
shall I escape ?] 

I have not decided which train I shall take. [Direct question : Which 
train shall I take ?] 

428. Both direct and indirect questions may be introduced (1) 
by the interrogative pronouns who, which, ivhat ; (2) by the 
interrogative adverbs when, where, whence, whither, how, why. 

Indirect questions may be introduced by the subordinate con- 
junctions whether (whether . . . or) and if. 

The use of tenses in indirect questions is the same as in the 
indirect discourse (§ 421). 

The constable inquired whether (or if) I lived in Casterbridge. [His 
question was : Do you live in Casterbridge ? ] 

Your father wishes to know if you have been playing truant. [Direct 
question : Have you been playing truant ?] 

I considered whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold. [Direct 
question : Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold ? ] 

429. Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may 
be used in various noun constructions : (1) as object of some verb 
of asking or the like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate nominative, 
(4) as appositive, (o) as object of a preposition. 

The skipper asked what had become of the cook. [Object.] 

He was asked what his profession was. [Retained object after the 

passive (§§249, 378).] 

How we could escape was a difficult question. [Subject.] 

The problem was how they should find food. [Predicate nominative.] 

The question who was to blame has never been settled. [Apposition 

with question.] 

They were in doubt as to what they should do. [Object of preposition.] 



134 MEANINGS OF SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES 

An indirect question may be an adverbial clause. 

He was uncertain what he should do. [The clause modifies uncertain.] 
Edmund was in doubt where he should spend the night. [The clause 
modifies the adjective phrase in doubt.] 

430. An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means 
of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive. 

Whom to choose is the question. [Direct : Whom shall we choose ?] 
John asked what to do. [John's question was : What shall I do ?] 
I know where to go. [Direct question : Where shall I go ?] 
Tell me when to strike the bell. 
I was at a loss how to reply. 

In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun 
(either as subject or as object). In the fifth, the phrase how to reply is 
adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase at a loss. 

431. The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect ques- 
tions, and is still occasionally used after if or whether. 

I doubt if it be true. 

Elton questioned whether the project were wise. 

432. The rule for shall (should) and will (would) in indirect 
questions is, to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question, 
merely changing the tense (shall to should ; will to -would) 
when necessary (§ 428). 

Note. There is a single exception to the rule. When, in changing from a 
direct to an indirect question, the third person with will or would becomes the 
first, shall or should is substituted unless volition is expressed. Thus, John 
says to Thomas, "Will Chaises die of his wound?" Charles, reporting 
John's question, says, "John asked Thomas whether / should die of my 
wound." Compare §425. 



PAET THREE 

ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER I 
THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE - MODIFIERS 

433. Analysis in grammar is the separation of a sentence into 
its constituent parts, or elements. To dissect a sentence in this 
way is to analyze it. 

434. The elements which make up a sentence are : (1) the 
simple subject (or subject substantive) ; (2) the simple predicate (or 
predicate verb); (3) modifiers; (4) the complements, — direct object, 
predicate objective, predicate adjective, predicate nominative ; 
and (5) the so-called independent elements, — the interjection, 
the vocative (or nominative of direct address), the exclamatory- 
nominative, and various parenthetical expressions (§ 465). 

435. The essentials for a sentence are a substantive as subject 
and a verb as predicate. By combining these two indispensable 
elements, in various ways, with modifiers and complements, the 
sentence may be extended to any length desired. 

436. The various kinds of modifiers and complements have all 
been studied in preceding chapters, — each in connection with 
the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of analysis, 
however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and 
complements as such. 

The topics will be* taken up in the following order : (1) modi- 
fiers — of the subject, of the predicate ; (2) complements -> 
(3) modifiers of complements ; (4) modifiers of modifiers. 

135 



136 MODIFIERS 

437. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the mean- 
ing of another word is called a modifier (§ 20). 

438. Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives 
and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs. All modifiers 
of substantives are called adjective modifiers ; all modifiers of 
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called adverbial modifiers. 

439. A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an 
adjective phrase or clause. A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial 
modifier is called an adverbial phrase or clause. 

Able men "1 

Men of ability y can always find employment. 

Men who have ability j 

{thoughtlessly. [Adverb.] 
without thinking. [Adverbial phrase.] 
before I thought. [Adverbial clause.] 

MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 

440. Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective 
modifier, but modifiers of the subject are particularly important. 

441. The simple subject may be modified by (1) an adjective, 
an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause ; (2) a participle ; (3) an 
infinitive ; (4) a possessive ; (5) an appositive. 

I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 

442. The simple subject may be modified by an adjective, an 
adjective phrase, or an adjective clause. 

Ivory trinkets 

Trinkets of ivory [■ lay scattered about. 

Trinkets which were carved from ivory J 

Treeless spots 1 

Spots without trees I were plainly visible. 

Spots where no trees grew J 

In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first 
sentence is modified by an adjective, that of the second by an 
adjective phrase, that of the third by an adjective clause. 



MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 137 

H-ffl. PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES 

443. The subject may be modified by a participle or an 
infinitive (with or without modifier or complement). 

1. Smiling, the child shook his head. 

2. My aunt, reassured, "took up her book again. 

3. The prisoner sank back exhausted. , 

4. Exasperated beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope. 

5. John, obeying a sudden impulse, took to his heels. 

6. Having broken one oar, Robert had to scull. 

7. The natives, fearing captivity above all things, fought bravely. 

8. Albert left the room, looking rather sullen. 

In the fourth example, the participle is modified by an adver- 
bial phrase ; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object ; in the 
seventh, it has both an object and a modifier ; in the eighth, 
it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen. 

In analysis, the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and 
accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the 
subject ; but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier, and then to 
enumerate its modifiers, etc., separately. Thus, in the seventh example, the 
simple subject natives is modified by the participle fearing, which has for a 
complement captivity (its direct object) and is modified by the adverbial 
phrase above all things. 

9. Eagerness to learn was young Lincoln's strongest passion. 

10. Ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment. 

11. Howard's unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life. 

In the tenth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modi- 
fier (rapidly) ; and in the eleventh, it has a complement, its 
object (friend). In such instances, two methods of analysis 
are allowable, as in the case of participial phrases. 

IV. POSSESSIVES 

444. The subject may be modified by a substantive in the 
possessive case. This is called a possessive modifier. 

Napoleon's tomb is in Paris. The Indians' 1 camp was near. 

In each example, the possessive modifies the subject by 
limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do. 



138 MODIFIEKS 



V. APPOSITIVES 

445. The subject may be modified by a substantive in apposi- 
tion (§ 83, 5). 

Meredith the carpenter lives in that house. 

Herbert, our captain, has broken his leg. 

The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque image, was thrown down by the 
Spaniards. 

Many books, both pamphlets and bound volumes, littered the table. 
{Here the subject (books) is modified by two appositives.] 

446. Appositives often have modifiers of their own. Thus 
carpenter is modified by the adjective the, captain by the 
possessive our, image by the adjeetives a and grotesque. 

In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and 
attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well, 
however, to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the 
-adjectives, etc., by which the appositive itself is modified. 

447. A noun clause may be used as an appositive, and so 
may be an adjective modifier (§ 375). 

The question whether Antonio was a citizen was settled in the affirma- 
tive. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with 
question.'] 

The statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid 
zone. [The clause that water freezes is in apposition with statement.'] 

An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective 
<§ 170) : — " A sword, keen and bright, flashed from the soldier's scabbard." 



MODIFIERS OE THE PREDICATE 

448. The simple predicate, being a verb or verb-phrase, can 
have only adverbial modifiers. 

The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an adverb, an 
adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause, (2) an infinitive, (3) an 
adverbial objective, (4) a nominative absolute, (5) an indirect object, 
(6) a cognate object. 



MODIFIERS -OF THE PREDICATE 13£ 

I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE 

449. The simple predicate (predicate verb) may be modified, 
by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

( there. 
The old schoolhouse stands^ at the crossroads. 

I where the roads meet. 
C early. 
We left the hall i before the last speech. 

I while the last speech was being delivered. 

In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first 
sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an 
adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause- 

Most adverbial phrases are prepositional (§ 42). 

H. INFINITIVE 

450. The simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive 

(§ 314). 

He lay down to rest. Jack worked hard to fell the tree. 

The fire continued to burn. Kate began to weep bitterly. 

The wind began to subside. That pilot seems to be skilful. 

The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in 
the last three examples. 

III. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE 

451. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverbial 
objective (§ 111). 

I have waited ages. We have walked miles. 

The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes 
an adverbial phrase. 

Walter ran the entire distance. He came at me full tilt. 
I will forgive you this time. The wind blew all night. 

The adverbial phrase the entire distance modifies the verb 
ran as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of the noun 
distance with its adjective modifiers, the and entire. 



140 MODIFIERS 

IV. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE 

452. The simple predicate may be modified by a nominative 
absolute (§ 336). 

A substantive in the absolute construction makes with its 
modifiers an adverbial phrase. 

The ship having arrived, we all embarked. 
We shall sail on Tuesday, weather permitting. 
That done, repair to Pompey's theatre. 

In the first sentence, the absolute phrase, the ship having 
arrived, is equivalent to the prepositional phrase on the arrival 
of the ship, and defines the time of the action expressed by 
the verb embarked. In the second, weather permitting is equiv- 
alent to a conditional clause, if the weather permits. 

V. INDIRECT OBJECT 

453. The simple predicate may be modified by an indirect 
-object (§ 103). This, being equivalent to a prepositional phrase, 
is an adverbial modifier. 

He gave me a watch. [= He gave a watch to me.] 

Tom told me the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story to me.] 

The objective of service (§ 108) is also an adverbial modifier. 

VI. COGNATE OBJECT 

454. The simple predicate may be modified by a cognate object 
or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 110). 

The officer looked daggers at me [= looked at me angrily]. 

The shepherd sang a merry song [= sang merrily]. 

The skipper laughed a scornful laugh [= laughed scornfully]. 

In the first sentence, the cognate object (daggers) modifies 
the predicate verb (looked) as the adverb angrily would do. 
It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third 
sentences, the modifier of the predicate verb (sang, laughed) is 
an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (song, laugh) 
with its adjective modifiers (a merry, a scornful). 



COMPLEMENTS 141 

CHAPTER II 
COMPLEMENTS 

455. 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is complete in itself. 
Such a verb needs only a subject. When this ^has been sup- 
plied, we have a sentence, for the mere verb, without any- 
additional word or words, is capable of being a predicate. 

Birds fly. The owls hooted. 

Fishes swim. The clock ticked. 

Verbs of this kind are sometimes called complete verbs, or verba 
of complete predication. 

2. Other verbs cannot, by themselves, serve as predicates. 

The Indians killed . Tom is . 

Mr. Harris makes . The man seemed . 

These are not sentences, for the predicate verb of each 
requires a substantive or an adjective to complete its sense. 

The Indians killed deer. ' Tom is captain. 

Mr. Harris makes shoes. The man seemed sorry. 

Verbs of this kind are often called incomplete verbs, or verbs of 
incomplete predication. 

Note. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it 
belongs. Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in some of 
its senses and to the second in others (§§ 210-213). 

456. A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to com- 
plete its meaning is called a complement. 

Complements are of four kinds, — the direct object, the predicate 
objective, the predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective. 

In the examples in § 455, deer and shoes are direct objects, — the former 
denoting the receiver of the action, the latter denoting the product ; 
captain is a predicate nominative, denoting the same person as the subject 
Tom (§ 83, 2) ; sorry is a predicate adjective describing the subject man 
(§§170-171). 



142 COMPLEMENTS 

457. Complements may be modified. If substantives, they 
may take adjective modifiers ; if adjectives, adverbial modifiers 
(§§438,458). 

1. THE DIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB 

1. Alfred has broken his arm. 

2. Morse invented the electric telegraph. 

3. You have accomplished a task of great difficulty. 

4. Have you lost the dog which your uncle gave you ? 

5. He asked me the news. [Two direct objects (§ 99).] 

Most of these objects are modified, — arm by the possessive his ; telegraph 
I>y the and electric; task by a and by the adjective phrase of great difficulty ; 
dog by the and by the adjective clause which your uncle gave you. 

6. You promised that my coat should be ready to-day. 

7. The mayor ordered that the street should be closed for three hours. 

8. I begged that my passport might be returned to me. 

In examples 6-8 a noun clause is used as the object. See §§ 375, 377, 395, 
419, 429. 

2/ THE PREDICATE OBJECTIVE 

1. The people have elected Chamberlain governor. 

2. Peter calls Richard my shadow. 

3. The court has appointed you the child's guardian, 

4. John thinks himself a hero. 

5. I thought your decision hasty. 

6. I call that answer impertinent. 

7. The jury found the prisoner guilty. 

In examples 5-7 an adjective serves as predicate objective (§ 101). 

3. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE 1 

1. Chemistry is a useful science. 

2. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. 

3. Jefferson became President. 

4. This bird is called a flamingo. 

5. Albert has been chosen captain of the crew. 

6. You are & friend upon whom I can rely. 

1 For the distinction between the predicate nominative and the direct object, 
see § 97. 



COMPLEMENTS 143 

In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one or more modi- 
fiers. In the first sentence, science is modified by the two adjectives a and 
useful; in the second, capital is modified by the adjective the and the adjec- 
tive phrase of Massachusetts ; in the last, friend is modified by the adjective 
a and the adjective clause upon whom I can rely. 

7 . My plan is that the well should be dug to-morrow. 

8. The result is that he is bankrupt. 

9. Ruth's fear was that the door might be locked. 

10. To hear is to obey. 

11. My hope was to reach the summit before dark. 

12. Their plan was to undermine the tower. 

13. My habit is to rise early. 

In examples 7-9 a noun clause, in examples 10-13 an infinitive, is used as a 
predicate nominative. The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. 
In the eleventh and twelfth examples, it takes an object ; in the thirteenth, it 
is modified by an adverb. 



4. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 

1. John was angry. 

2. My knife is growing dull. 

3. The task seemed very easy. 

4. The report proved false^ in every particular. 

5. The boat was thought unsafe. 

6. The cover was made perfectly tight. 

7. The road is rough where they are repairing it. 

In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a modifier. In the 
third, easy is modified by the adverb very ; in the fourth, fa Ise is modified by 
the adverbial phrase in every particular ; in the sixth, tight is modified by 
perfectly ; in the last, rough is modified by an adverbial clause. 

8. Richard was out of health. [Compare: Richard was ill.] 

9. Rachel seemed in a passion. [Compare : seemed angry.] 

10. This act is against my interests. [Compare : is harmful to me.] 

11. Tom's coat was in tatters. [Compare : was ragged.] 

12. Your wisdom is beyond dispute. [Compare : is indisputable.] 

In examples 8-12 an adjective phrase is used as a predicate adjective. The 
adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or without the preposition 
about (§ 310). 

I was about to speak. 

This house is to let. 

I am to sail to-morrow. 

In the last example the infinitive to sail is modified by the adverb to-morrow. 



144 MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS 

CHAPTER III 
MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS 

COMPLEMENTS MODIFIED 

458. Complements, being either substantives or adjectives, 
may be modified in various ways, most of which have been 
noted in Chapter II. 

1. A substantive used as a complement may have the same 
kinds of modifiers that are used with the subject (§ 441). 

2. An adjective complement admits only adverbial modifiers. 

459. The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of 
substantive complements : — 

Herbert lost a gold watch. [The direct object (watch) is modified by 
the adjectives a and gold.] 

The duke built towers of marble. [The direct object (towers) is modi- 
fied by the adjective phrase of marble.] 

My father built the house in which I was born. [The direct object 
(house) is modified by the adjective the and the adjective clause in which 
I was born.] 

I saw a man running across the field. [The direct object (man) is 
modified by the adjective a and the participle running.] 

You have forfeited your right to vote. [The direct object (right) is 
modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to vote.] 

I have seen Henry's brother. [The direct object (brother) is modified 
by the possessive noun Henry'' s.] 

I must ask my brother, the mayor. [The direct object (brother) is 
modified by the possessive pronoun my and the appositive mayor.] 

The guild has elected Walter honorary president. [The predicate 
objective (president) is modified by the adjective honorary.] 

Her husband is an old soldier. [The predicate nominative (soldier) is 
modified by the adjectives an and old.] 

They are rivals in business. [The predicate nominative (rivals) is 
modified by the adjective phrase in business.] 

The author is Will Jewell, who was formerly editor of " The Pioneer.''' 
[The predicate nominative (Will Jewell) is modified by the adjective 
clause who was formerly editor, etc.] 



MODIFIERS OF MODIFIERS 145 

Baldwin is the man standing under the tree. [The predicate nomina- 
tive (man) is modified by the adjective the and the participle standing.] 

Your chief fault is your inclination to procrastinate. [The predicate 
nominative (inclination) is modified by the possessive pronoun your and 
the infinitive to procrastinate.] 

This man is Dora's brother. [The predicate nominative (brother) is 
modified by the possessive noun Dora's.] 

The first to fall was the bugler, John Wilson. [The predicate nom- 
inative {bugler) is modified by the adjective the and the appositive 
John Wilson.] 

460. Adjective clauses are very common as modifiers of sub- 
stantive complements (cf. § 442). 

Have you lost the watch that your cousin gave you ? 

461. An adjective used as a complement may be modified 
by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause. 

I am very sorry for you. [Sorry is modified by the adverb very and 
the adverbial phrase for you.] 

( rather ^ 
Charles seems \ very y angry. 

I. extremely J 

mu j • i (in places. 

The road is rough ^ . ., ..... 

I where they are repairing it. 

MODIFIERS OF OTHER MODIFIERS 

462. Modifiers may themselves be modified. 

I. Adjectives or adjective phrases may be modified by adverbs 
or by words or groups of words used adverbially. 

A very old man came to the door. 

An exceedingly dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge. 

The quay is miles long. [Adverbial objective (§ 111).] 

At least five different amendments have been offered. [Five is modi- 
fied by the adverbial phrase at least.] 

The general, wholly in the dark as to the enemy's intentions, ordered 
an advance. [The adjective phrase in the dark is modified by wholly.] 

Her smile, pathetic in its weariness, quickly faded. [The adverbial 
phrase modifies pathetic] 

This sleeve is a good two inches short. [The phrase modifies short.] 



146 MODIFIEES OF MODIFIERS 

II. Possessive nouns may be modified by adjectives or by 
possessives. 

The poor man's days are numbered. 
Honest Tom's face shone with delight. 
The faithful animal's head drooped. 
Jack's grandfather's house is on fire ! 
My aunt's parrot is a great talker. 

III. Appositives may be modified by adjectives or by groups 
of words used as adjectives. 

Joe, the old butler, met me at the station. 
Her mother, a woman of fashion, sadly neglected her. 
Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer who had charge of the construction, 
proved incompetent. 

IV. Adverbs or adverbial phrases may be modified by adverbs 
or by words or groups of words used adverbially. 

Jane plays very well. 

Eobert spoke almost hopefully. 

She answered quite at random. 

You get up astonishingly early in the morning. 

I write to him at least once a year. 

463. An adjective may be modified by an infinitive (§ 312). 

Unable to move, I suffered torments of anxiety. 

The sailors, eager to reach the island, plunged into the sea. 

Tins riddle is hard to guess. 

I am willing to work but not strong enough to handle freight. 

464. Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as modi- 
fiers of modifiers (cf. § 460). 

Geronimo, an old chief who bore the scars of many battles, led the 
attack. [The adjective clause modifies the appositive chief.] 

The servant, angry because he had been rebuked, slammed the door. 

The hunter, confident that the deer had not heard him, took aim. 

The fugitive, in a panic lest he should be overtaken, made frantic efforts 
to scale the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrase 
in a panic.'] 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 147 

CHAPTER IV 
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

465. A word or group of words that has no grammatical connection 
with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element. 

Independent elements are of four kinds, — interjections, vocatives (or 
nominatives of direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and paren- 
thetical expressions. 

1. Ah! why did I undertake this task ? 

2. Help arrived, alas ! too late. 

3. You are a strange man, Arthur. 

4. Mary, come here ! 

5. Poor Charles ! I am sorry for him. 

6. Clothes! clothes! you are always wanting clothes. 
. 7. Lucky she! we are all envious of her prospects. 

The first two sentences contain interjections (§ 363); the 
second two, vocatives (or nominatives of direct address) 
(§ 83, 3) ; the last three, exclamatory nominatives (§ 83, 4). 

When the independent word has a modifier (as in the fifth 
and seventh examples), the whole phrase may be treated as 
an independent element. 

466. A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence 
as a mere comment, without belonging either to the subject or the 
predicate, is said to be parenthetical. 

The market, indeed, was already closed. 

Peter, to be sure, was not very trustworthy. 

The house, at all events, is safe. 

The road is, I admit, very hilly. 

Luttrell's method, it must be confessed, was a little disappointing. 

Richard was not a bad fellow, after all. . 

Generally speaking, such a policy is unwise. [See § 330.] 

467. In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by 
itself, and not as a part of the complete subject or the 
complete predicate. 



148 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

CHAPTER V 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

SIMPLE SENTENCES 

468. In analyzing a simple sentence, we first divide it into 
the complete subject and the complete predicate. Then we point 
out the simple subject (a substantive) with its modifiers, and the 
simple predicate (a verb or verb-phrase) with its modifiers and 
complement (if there is one). If either the subject or the predi- 
cate is compound, we mention the simple subjects or predicates 
that are joined. 

1. The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. 

This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is the polar bear ; the 
complete predicate is lives in the Arctic regions. The simple subject is 
the noun bear ; the simple predicate is the verb lives. Bear is modified 
by the adjectives the and polar ; lives is modified by the adverbial phrase 
in the Arctic regions. This phrase consists of the preposition in; its object, 
the noun regions; and the adjectives the and Arctic, modifying regions. 

2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic regions. 

The complete subject is the polar bear and the walrus. Two simple 
subjects (bear and walrus) are joined by the conjunction and to make a 
compound subject, and two simple predicates (live and thrive) are joined 
by and to make a compound predicate. Live and thrive are both modified 
by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. 

469. Other examples of simple sentences are as follows : — 

1. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious 
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi- 
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. 

This is a simple sentence. The subject is she. The complete predicate 
is the rest of the sentence. This predicate is compound, containing the 
two verbs was tumbled and browsed. Was tumbled is modified by the 
adverb early, and by the adverbial phrases by accident or design, into . . . 
reading, and without . . . prohibition. Browsed is modified by the adver- 
bial phrases at will and upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 149 

2. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered 
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Eome, received the homage 
of the Senate, and precariously reigned during a tumult of twenty-eight 
days. — Gibbon. 

This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is arming . . . he; the 
complete predicate is overpowered ... days (the rest of the sentence). 
The simple subject is he, modified by the participle arming, which has 
for its complement troop (direct object), modified by the adjectives a 
and desperate and the adjective phrase of slaves and gladiators. Three 
simple predicates (or predicate verbs), overpowered, received, and reigned 
are joined to make a compound predicate. Overpowered has the comple- 
ment guard (direct object), which is modified by the adjectives the and 
feeble and the adjective phrase of the domestic tranquillity of Rome. 
Received has the complement homage (direct object), which is modified 
by the adjective the and the adjective phrase of the Senate. Reigned is 
modified by the adverb precariously and the adverbial phrase during a 
tumult of twenty -eight days. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES 

470. In analyzing a compound sentence we first divide it into 
its coordinate clauses, and then analyze each clause by itself. 

The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

This is a compound sentence consisting of two coordinate clauses joined 
by the conjunction but : (1) the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions and 
(2) it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The complete subject of the 
first clause is the polar bear [and so on, as in § 468, above]. The subject 
of the second clause is it; the complete predicate is sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified 
by the adverb sometimes and is completed by the direct object latitudes 
The complement latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate. 

471. The following are examples of compound sentences: — 

1. States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die. — Byron. 

2. The court was sitting ; the case was heard ; the judge had finished ; 
and only the verdict was yet in arrear. — De Quincey. 

3. He softly blushed ; he sighed ; he hoped ; he feared ; he doubted ; 
he sometimes yielded to the delightful idea. — Thackeray. 

4. A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the 
door, the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville. — Co wper. 



150 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

5. His health had suffered from confinement ; his high spirit had been 
cruelly wounded ; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart. 

6. A cricket chirps on the hearth, and we are reminded of Christmas 
gambols long ago. — Hazlitt. 

7. The moments were numbered ; the strife was finished ; the vision 
was closed. — De Quincey. 

8. The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the 
strongest towers of the Alhambra, but his restless anxiety kept him from 
repose. — Irving. 

9. The clock has just struck two ; the expiring taper rises and sinks 
in the socket ; the watchman forgets his hour in slumber ; the laborious 
and the happy are at rest ; and nothing wakes but meditation, guilt, 
revelry, and despair. — Goldsmith. [Five coordinate clauses.] 

10. The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent 
objects ; it is not a contest for acquisition of territory ; it is not a con- 
test for power and glory ; as little is it carried on merely for any com- 
mercial advantage, or any particular form of government ; but it is a 
contest for the security, the tranquillity, and the very existence of Great 
Britain, connected with that of every established government and every 
country in Europe. — Pitt. [Five coordinate clauses.] 

COMPLEX SENTENCES 

472. In analyzing a complex sentence, we first divide it into 
the main clause and the subordinate clause. 

1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear some- 
times reaches temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is which lives in 
the Arctic regions. The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear, 
which lives in the Arctic regions; the complete predicate is sometimes 
reaches temperate latitudes. The simple subject is bear, which is modified 
by the adjectives the and polar and by the adjective clause which lives in 
the Arctic regions. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by 
the adverb sometimes and completed by the direct object latitudes. This 
complement, latitudes, is modified by the adjective temperate. The sub- 
ordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which. [Then 
analyze the subordinate clause.] 

2. The polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts 
southward. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear reaches 
temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 151 

The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear ; the complete 
predicate is reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. The 
simple subject is bear, which is modified by the adjectives the and polar. 
The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverbial clause 
when the ice drifts southward, and completed by the noun latitudes (the 
direct object of reaches). The complement latitudes is modified by the 
adjective temperate. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative 
adverb when. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.] 

3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at 
home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear some- 
times reaches temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is which lives in 
the Arctic regions when it is at home, which is complex, since it contains 
the adverbial clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives. 

4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is he says ; the subordi- 
nate clause is that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The subject 
of the sentence is he, the complete predicate is says that the polar bear 
lives in the Arctic regions. The simple predicate is says, which is com- 
pleted by its direct object, the noun clause that . . . regions, introduced 
by the conjunction that. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.] 

5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a 
familiar fact. 

This is a complex sentence. The main clause (is a familiar fact) 
appears as a predicate only, since the subordinate clause (that the polar 
bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes) is a noun clause used as the 
complete subject of the sentence. The simple predicate is is, which is 
completed by the predicate nominative fact. This complement is modified 
by the adjectives a and familiar. The subordinate clause, which is used 
as the complete subject, is introduced by the conjunction that. [Then 
analyze this clause.] 

473. The following examples illustrate several varieties of 
the complex sentence : — 

1. The gas exploded when I struck a match. 

2. Though he is idle, he is not lazy. 

3. The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his 
injuries. 

4. Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness, 
that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on the 
blue sky. — Keats. 



152 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

5. The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clash- 
ing of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who 
stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent 
suspense. — Gibbon. 

6. As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, the 
sun dipped and disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity 
and grayness of the early night. — Stevenson. 

7 . As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller had 
just left sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored line. — Ruskin. 

8. Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to 
despise, assume new terrors as we grow old. — Goldsmith. 

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES 

474. Two or more coordinate clauses may be joined to make 
one compound clause. 

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical con- 
stitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate, sometimes reaches 
temperate latitudes. 

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the floes 
break up and when the ice drifts southward. 

In the first example, the italicized words form a compound 
adjective clause, modifying the noun bear. It consists of two 
coordinate adjective clauses joined by and. These are coordinate 
because they are of the same order or rank in the sentence 
(§ 46), each being an adjective modifier of the noun. 

In the second example, the predicate verb reaches is modi- 
fied by a compound adverbial clause, similarly made up. 

In analyzing a compound clause, we first divide it into the 
coordinate clauses of which it consists, and then analyze each 
of these separately. 

475. A clause is complex when it contains a modifying clause. 

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, 
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. 

Here the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions 
when it is at home is complex, for it contains the adverbial 
clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives. 



COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 153 

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

476. Two or more independent complex clauses may be 
joined to make a compound complex sentence. 1 

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in 
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere ; || and || the polar bear 
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. 

This is a compound complex sentence, for it consists of two 
complex clauses joined by the coordinate conjunction and. 
Each of these two clauses is independent of the other, fo* 
each might stand by itself as a complex sentence. 

The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, of 
which there are several varieties, modifying bear ; the second 
contains an adverbial clause, when the ice drifts southward^ 
modifying reaches. 

477. A sentence consisting of two or more independent 
clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if 
any one of these is complex. 

The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern 
Hemisphere ; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate lati- 
tudes when the ice drifts southward. 

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in 
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere ; || and || the polar 
bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. 

Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the 
first clause is simple (§ 45) and the second is complex. In the 
other, the first clause is complex and the second is simple. 

478. In analyzing a compound complex sentence, we first 
divide it into the independent clauses (simple or complex) of 
which it consists, and then analyze each of these as if it 
were a sentence by itself. 

Thus, in § 476, we divide the sentence into two complex 
clauses and then analyze each. 

1 Instead of compound complex, the term complex compound is often used. 



154 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

479. Further examples of compound complex sentences are : — 

1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his 
child ; and he roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle 
in Delphi. — Kingsley. 

2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown ; novels are their 
literature. — Emerson. 

3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have 
more of their music. — Cowper. 

4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful faces 
that had once been reflected in its stream had passed away. — Froude. 

5. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams that 
they should rest awhile in this delightful place. — Fielding. 

6. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be ; yet it was 
difficult to say what she did. — C. Bronte. 

7. Old Uncle Venner was just coming out of his door, with a wood- 
horse and saw on his shoulder ; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled 
not to keep company with Phoebe, so far as their paths lay together ; nor, 
in spite of his patched coat and rusty beaver, and the curious fashion of 
his tow-cloth trousers, could she find it in her heart to outwalk him. 

Hawthorne. 

8. Hunger alone seems to stir him to exertion ; and when it is stilled, 
he relapses into repose. — Huxley. 

9. Then the road passes straight on through a waste moor, till at 
length the towers of a distant city appear before the traveller ; and soon 
he is in the midst of the innumerable multitudes of Vanity Fair. 

M AC AULA Y. 

10. Medea shrieked a fearful shriek, and dashed the cup to the 
ground, and fled ; and where the wine flowed over the marble pavement, 
the stone bubbled and crumbled and hissed under the fierce venom of 
the draught. — Kingsley. 

11. He that hath a fro ward heart findeth no good; and he that hath 
a perverse tongue falleth into mischief. — Proverbs. 



ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 155 

CHAPTER VI 
ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

480. Good, usage does not demand that all sentences shall 
be complete. It sometimes allows or requires ' the omission 
of words that, though necessary to the construction, are so 
easily supplied that they need not be spoken. 

481. The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical 
completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis. 

A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical. 

[I] thank you. 

[I] pray do not [you] move. 

[You] pass me that book. 

Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue. 

Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish. 

Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were armed] 

with swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks. 
When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East. 
Though [he is] timid, he is no coward. 
They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed. 
While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar. 
If [it is] possible, send me word to-night. 
You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary. 
They marched slowly as if [they were] worn out. 
Why [are you] so dejected ? Why [are] these tears ? 
He was ten years of age, his brother [was] eight [years of age] . 
I have more confidence in James than [I have] in Edmund. 
Mary is younger than George [is young] . 
Tom likes you better than [he likes] me. 
You like him better than I do [like him] . 
I like him better than Charles does [like him] . 
This racket is not so heavy as that [is heavy] . 
You are not so old as I [am old] . 
Peace [be] to his memory ! 
This is the only pencil [that] I have. 
Is that the boy [whom] you hired yesterday ? 
They say [that] you are going to Europe soon. 



156 ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

482. The examples in § 481 show that most cases of ellipsis 
fall under two heads : — 

1. To avoid repetition, words are often omitted in one part 
of the sentence when they occur in another part. 

2. Pronouns, the conjunction that, and some forms of the 
verb is, are often omitted when they are readily supplied. 

Under the second head come (1) the ellipsis of the subject (thou or you) 
in imperative sentences (§ 263), (2) that of relative pronouns in the objec- 
tive case (§ 150), (3) that of is, are, etc. (with the subject pronoun) in 
subordinate clauses introduced by when, though, if, and the like. 

483. Adverbs indicating direction (like forward, back) are 
often used without a verb in imperative sentences. 

Forward, brave companions ! 
Down on your knees ! 
Up, guards, and at them ! 

484. The ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction that is very 
common, especially in indirect discourse (§§ 357, 420). 

I know [that] you are my friend. 
Jack said [that] the boat had sunk. 
He told me [that] he was sorry. 

485. Before analyzing an elliptical sentence, we should sup- 
ply the omitted word or words. 

486. Many constructions, originally elliptical, have become 
established idioms in which no ellipsis is felt. In such cases 
it is usually better to take the sentence as it stands, and not 
to supply the omitted words. 

Thus, in fr He eats as if he were famished" the italicized words are 
properly treated as a subordinate clause modifying eats and introduced 
by the compound conjunction as if. Yet in strictness this construction 
is an ellipsis for ff He eats as [he would eat] if he were famished." 



EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 1 

(§§3-7, pp. 2-3) 

1. Tell whether each of the following sentences is declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. If a sentence 
is both declarative and exclamatory, mention the fact. Men- 
tion the subject and the predicate of each sentence. Note all 
instances of the inverted order (§7). 

1. The human mind is a great mystery. 2. The aged men were enjoy- 
ing themselves thoroughly. 3. Brave is the laurel ! 4. The laboring of 
the ship in the troubled sea on this night I shall never forget. 5. That 
last stroke of the hoe has cut off a bean-stalk. 6. Far around us lay a 
rich and lovely English landscape, with many a church-spire and noble 
country-seat. — Hawthorne. 7. Man is timid and apologetic. — Emer- 
son. 8. What a strain is a long book ! — Stevenson. 9. Can I ever bid 
these joys farewell ? 10. The gallant chief within his cabin slept. — 
Byron. 11. The hermit sits alone. 12. The enemy regarded his meas- 
ures with apprehension. 13. How full of briers is this working-day world ! 

— Shakspere. 14. I was very well pleased with the knight's proposal. 
15. The great expedition takes up everybody's thought. 16. How the 
pitiless tempest raves ! 

17. Over the sea our galleys went. 18. Will Judge Pyncheon make due 
apologies ? 19. Be merciful in your dealings with him ! 20. What men or 
gods are these ? 21. Poetry is the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge. 

— Wordsworth. 22. There sits Mistress Alice quietly asleep ! 23. Lit- 
tle Britain may truly be called the heart's core of the city. 24. The 
Bruce's followers crowd the shore. 25. Are these friends or enemies ? 
26. Don't talk to me about taverns ! 27. The air was fresh but balmy. 
28. What a scene did we witness ! 29. Slow tolls the village clock the 
drowsy hour. 30. The clouds began to roll in heavy masses along the 
mountains. 31. Wide waves his flickering sword. 32. I was glad enough 
of this news. 33. They were in some distress for provisions. 34. Hours 
and hours and hours have I spent in endeavors altogether fruitless ! 

157 



158 EXEECISES 

2. Write ten interrogative sentences concerning each topic. 
Reply in declarative sentences. 

(1) The American Revolution ; (2) the Dutch in New Amsterdam ; 
(3) the history of your own state ; (4) the government of the United 
States ; (5) hygiene ; (6) the manufactures (or commerce) of your town 
or city. 

3. Write ten imperative sentences, each giving an order 
concerning — 

(1) the playing of a game ; (2) the building or sailing of a boat ; 
(3) the care of the health ; (4) the manufacture of some article of 
common use ; (5) the writing of a business letter. 

4. Write ten exclamatory sentences. Tell whether each is 
declarative, interrogative, or imperative. 



EXERCISE 2 

(§§ 8-26, pp. 3-10) 

1. Tell the parts of speech (including verb-phrases) on 
page 157. 

2. Use the following words in sentences of your own : — 

Sleep (noun, verb) ; dry (adjective, verb, noun) ; very (adverb, adjective) ; 
express (noun, verb, adjective) ; bellow (verb, noun) ; American (adjective, 
noun) ; future (adjective, noun) ; to-morrow (noun, adverb) ; flower (noun, 
verb) ; sovereign (noun, adjective) ; summer (noun, verb, adjective) ; double 
(adjective, adverb, verb) ; well (adjective, adverb) ; fast (adjective, adverb, 
noun, verb) ; content (noun, adjective, verb) ; last (adjective, adverb, verb, 
noun) ; down (adverb, preposition) ; for (preposition, conjunction) ; down- 
right (adjective, adverb) ; home (noun, adjective, adverb) ; lower (adjective, 
adverb, verb) ; iron (noun, adjective, verb) ; off (adverb, preposition, adjec- 
tive) ; up (adverb, preposition) ; high (adjective, adverb, noun) ; except (verb, 
preposition) ; inside (adjective, adverb, preposition, noun) ; past (noun, 
adjective, preposition) ; what (adjective, pronoun, interjection) ; round (noun, 
adjective, verb, preposition, adverb) ; sound (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) ; 
black (noun, verb, adjective) ; all (noun, adjective, adverb) ; open (noun, 
adjective, verb) ; while (noun, verb). 



SUBJECT AKD PREDICATE 159 

EXERCISE 3 

(§§ 27-34, pp. 10-11) 

Point out the infinitives and the participles. Tell when they 
occur in verb-phrases. Use them in sentences. Do the same 
with the sentences in Exercise 1 (p. 157). 

1. You may assure yourself that I shall take my first opportunity to 
wait on you. 2. Meantime, what are we stopping for ? 3. Something 
must be done to warn them. 4. He ordered me to set a candle by his 
bedside and to fetch him some papers out of his valise to read. 5. The 
pale stars are gone ! 6. We must forget and forgive. 7. What has 
brought you so suddenly to Bath ? 8. Two cavaliers rode up briskly 
to the chaise, commanding the coachman to stop. 

EXERCISE 4 

(§§ 35-39, pp. 12-13) 

1. Mention the simple subject (subject substantive) and the 
simple predicate (predicate verb) of each sentence in Exercise 1 
(p. 157). Tell whether the simple subject is a noun or a 
pronoun, and whether the simple predicate is a verb or a 
verb-phrase. 

2. Study in the same way your own sentences in Exercise 1. 

3. Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the 
complete predicate. If the sentence has a compound subject, 
mention the substantives that compose it ; if the sentence has 
a compound predicate, mention the verbs (or verb-phrases). 

1. They suddenly desisted from their play and stared at him. 2. He 
shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and, with a heart full of 
trouble and anxiety, turned his steps homeward. 3. The occasional bark 
of a dog and the distant sound of an evening bell gave fresh romance to 
the scene. 4. Silk and embroidery distinguished their dresses, and marked 
the wealth and importance of their master. 5. Chanticleer and the ladies 
of his household regarded her with queer, sidelong glances, and then 
croaked to one another. 6. Here we met with a very terrible tornado 
or hurricane. 7. Winter and Petersen, standing next to Williams and 
seeing him so furious, flew at him immediately. 8. Two days after this 
they took a Bristol ship, bound from Newfoundland to Oporto with fish. 



160 EXERCISES 

9. She makes a nice cheery little curtsey, and looks quite gay, pleased, 
and pretty. 10. Alone she cuts and binds the grain. 11. He turned 
away and strode off in the opposite direction. 12. Terror and guilt were 
in his look. 13. The natives were civil enough to us, and came often to 
discourse with us. 14. Harvey heard a step, looked up, and shuddered. 
15. Not a vine, not an almond tree, was to be seen on the slopes of the 
sunny hills. 16. Wheels, axles, linchpins, pole, glasses, lamps, were all 
critically probed and tested. 17. Often a wolf or some other prowling 
beast would disturb his slumber. 18. She went to the window and 
looked out. 



EXERCISE 5 

(§§ 40-42, pp. 13-14) 

1. Point out the noun-phrases, verb-phrases, adjective 
phrases, and adverbial phrases. Which of these phrases are 
prepositional ? 

1. The whole wilderness has blossomed into a garden. 2. Our chaise 
whirled rapidly over the frozen ground. 3. The sunshine of heaven fell 
like a gift of grace on the mud of the earth, on the remembering and 
mute stones, on greed, selfishness, on the anxious faces of forgetful 
men. — Conrad. 4. Long under Basil's roof had he lived. 5. A student 
with book in hand was seated on a stone bench. 6. She read one of the 
conversations between Easselas and Imlac, in a high-pitched majestic 
voice. 7. On the twenty-eighth, Greene arrived at Kamsey's Mills, on 
Deep River. 

8. And so we began our journey ; sadly, under dripping trees and a 
leaden sky. 9. The royal army was assembling fast at Salisbury. 
10. Old Lord Fairfax, the Mmrod of Greenway Court, had lived on 
in a green old age at his sylvan retreat in the beautiful valley of the 
Shenandoah. — Irving. 11. The forests had rung with the clamor of 
the huntsmen. 12. With daylight Isabel resumed her work. 13. The 
grounds about the house were laid out in the old formal manner. 

2. Fill each blank with a single word. Substitute for the 
word a phrase with the same meaning. Mention in each in- 
stance (1) the part of speech, (2) the kind of phrase. 

1. The hotel was . 

2. We climbed the mountain . 

3. The congratulated the winner. 



PHRASES A:ND CLAUSES 161 

4. A man eyed us furtively. 

5. The fire brightly. 

6. We found the trail . 

7. The tide came in . 

B. Life before the mast is . 

9. An aeroplane swiftly overhead. 

10. The will make the address on Memorial Day. 

11. A canoe glided by us. , 

12. Our nine won the game . 

13. The tried to silence us. 

14. My friend at me curiously. 

15. Call the manager . 

16. Where can I find a stenographer ? 

EXERCISE 6 

(§§ 43-51, pp. 14-18) 

1. Tell whether each sentence is simple, compound, or com- 
plex. If the sentence is compound, divide it into its independ- 
ent clauses, and mention the simple subject (noun or pronoun) 
and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase) of each clause. 

If the sentence is complex, divide it into the main (inde- 
pendent) and the subordinate clause, and tell whether the 
latter is used as an adjective or as an adverb. 

1. Malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison. 2. The yeoman 
returned to the headquarters of the allies, which were established under 
a venerable oak. 3. In the hedgerows might be found families of wrens. 
4. A knight might use a mace or battle axe at pleasure, but the dagger 
was a prohibited weapon. 5. In one Massachusetts village a large party 
was invited to meet us. 6. Two hundred had already assembled, and 
others were fast coming in. 7. Art's deathless dreams lay veiled by 
many a vein of Parian stone. 8. A man's inability to moderate and 
control his passions I call servitude. 9. Before the entrance the Templar 
wound his horn loudly, for the rain began to descend with great violence. 
10. The place was thronged with Indians, who came crowding in to . 
see us. 11. The crowd was rapidly melting away. 12. As we were 
crowding together over a lower intervening hill, I heard Reynal and 
Raymond shouting to me from the left. 

13. A flotilla of small sailboats came alongside for freight and bag- 
gage. 14. Her brothers were the craggy hills, her sisters larchen trees. 
— Keats. 15. The family room looked very small and very mean, and 



162 EXEECISES 

the downward staircase looked very narrow and very crooked. 16. We 
must now take leave of Arcadia, and those amiable people practising the 
rural virtues there, and travel back to London. 17. When 1 returned 
to the drawing room, I found the company seated round the fire. 18. The 
deepest thing in our nature is this dumb region of the heart in which 
we dwell alone with our willingnesses and our unwillingnesses, our faiths 
and our fears. — W. James. 19. It was dark, for the banks and bushes 
intercepted the light of the harvest moon. 20. The power had been 
placed in the hands of the Norman nobility by the Battle of Hastings, 
and it had been used with no moderate hand. 

2. Divide the compound complex sentences into their coordi- 
nate clauses. Tell whether each of these clauses, when stand- 
ing alone, is a simple or a complex sentence. 

1. Each knight repaired to his post ; and at the head of the few 
followers whom they were able to muster, they awaited the threatened 
assault. 2. Look out once more, and tell me if they yet advance. 
3. Few of the defenders escaped into the castle — the shrieks and cries 
which you hear tell the fate of the others. 4. The notes of all our birds 
and fowls please me, without one exception. I should not, indeed, think 
of keeping a goose in a cage, that I might hang him up in the parlor for 
the sake of his melody ; but a goose upon a common, or in a farmyard, 
is no bad performer. — Cowper. 



EXERCISE 7 
(§§ 53-79, pp. 19-27) 

1. Point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns 
in Exercise 6. Mention all the examples of personification. 

2. Point out all the abstract, all the collective, and all the 
compound nouns in Exercise 6. 

3. Make a list containing thirty nouns, ten in each of the 
three genders. Use each of these nouns in a sentence. 

4. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun of common 
gender. 

5. Write sentences containing the masculine forms corre- 
sponding to the feminine forms in this list, and the feminine 
forms corresponding to the masculine : — 



nouns 163 

postmaster, empress, lord, niece, waiter, bull, queen, godmother, 
administrator, lion, landlady, foreman, heir, manservant, mother-in-law, 
sister, stepson, hen, widower, hero, bride, shepherd, duke. 

6. Mention the gender and the number of each noun. Tell 
whether the gender is shown by form, by meaning, or by 
both. When possible, give the plural of each noun that is 
singular, and the singular of each noun that is 'plural. 

1. The shipping amounts to more than two hundred sail. — Macaulay. 
2. Go, for they call you, shepherd, from the hill. — Arnold. 3. Pru- 
dence is the virtue of the senses. — Emerson. 4. Hamlet, thou hast 
cleft my heart in twain. 5. Time is money. 6. One beast stood gravely 
twitching his ears at me as I went by. 7. Be patient then, dear Laura. 
8. He was a gracious master, a trusty ally, a terrible enemy. 9. With 
him came his wife, a comely young woman, and their son, a little fel- 
low of four. 10. Pray, sir, what says the ff Postman" from Vienna? 
11. Banquo ! Banquo ! Our royal master's murdered! 12. He did 
not deserve the name of pedlar at all : he was a travelling merchant. 
13. An enormous gray hare came jumping along, and seated himself 
within fifty yards to look at us. 

14. Nothing could be seen except three or four large curlew. — 
Parkman. 15. He stealthily moved toward the wagons, as if he were 
approaching a band of buffalo. 16. He had a pair of horns, twisted like 
a ram's. 17. Justice, most gracious duke ! grant me justice ! 18. Poor 
soul! his eyes are red as fire with weeping. — Shakspere. 19. At last 
the cow made a sudden plunge and ran off. 20. Mrs. Proudie's own maid, 
Mrs. Draper, came to him. 21. Every large country house became a 
fortress. 22. The czarina languidly acknowledged our applause. 23. The 
long feathers of the prairie cock fluttered from the crown of his head. 
24. Going one morning to see my traps, I found in one of them a large 
old he-goat. 25. There is a mail come in to-day with letters dated Hague, 
April the 19th. Prince Eugene was then returned thither from Amster- 
dam. He sets out from Brussels on Tuesday. — Steele. 

7. Write sentences in which the following words, letters, or 
figures are used 1 in the plural number : — 

ox, mouse, country, Shirley, talisman, 8, m, monkey, dynamo, hero, 
shelf, mother-in-law, Mr. Ripley, Master Ripley, Miss Ripley, deer, 
Japanese, crisis, gymnasium, fish, twelve, 12, cherub, ice, formula, sail, 
banjo, life, May, latch, Chief Justice, commander-in-chief, appendix, 
pailful, Colonel Austin, Rogers, basis, was, sky, Norman, solo. 



164 EXEECISES 

8. Write sentences in which the following nouns are used 
in the singular number : — 

heathen, data, genera, pence, thieves, analyses, tableaux, Sioux, dice, 
strata, spies, brethren, cumuli, alumnae, alumni, radii, banditti, editors- 
in-chief, Dutchmen, stepsons. 



EXERCISE 8 

(§§ 81-113, pp. 28-38) 

1. Mention all the nouns in Exercise 7, 6, that are in the 
nominative case, and give the construction (or syntax) of each, 

— as subject, predicate nominative, vocative (or nominative 
of direct address), exclamatory nominative, or nominative in 
apposition. 1 

2. Point out all the nouns below in the possessive (or geni- 
tive) case, and parse them according to the model in § 114. 

3. Parse the nouns in the objective case, according to the 
model in § 114. Tell the particular construction in each instance, 

— direct object, predicate objective, indirect object, etc. 

I. Hush'd was the revellers' sound. 2. Dorothea's eyes were full of 
laughter. 3. Pope has given us two pretty poems under Homer's titles. 

— Cowpee. 4. Perhaps I am occupied an hour and a half, perhaps 
three hours. 5. The book will do them no harm. 6. I have not seen 
him these twenty years. 7. The hot cinder burns a child the first time 
he seizes it ; it burns him the second time ; it burns him the third time ; 
it burns him every time ; and he very soon learns not to touch the 
hot cinder. — Spencer. 8. Thus in his father's sight the boy grew up. 
9. The picture must be an original of somebody's : and if not of 
Gainsborough's — whose? — FitzGerald. 10. A friend in Edinburgh 
sent me down Mr. Ricardo's book. 

II. 'Tis now six months since Lady Teazle made me the happiest of 
men. — Sheridan. 12. This exercise gives a man all the pleasure of box- 
ing, without the blows. 13, I can hardly think you my master. 14. This 
humor creates him no enemies. — Addison. 15. He creates Lucius pro- 
consul. — Shakspere. 16. I must ask my child forgiveness. — Shak- 
spere. 17. Never call a true piece of gold a counterfeit. — Shakspere. 
18. Give me your hand on the bargain. 19. It cost us a month or six 

1 Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 114. 



NOUNS 165 

weeks' time to perform this voyage. — Defoe. 20. Much the most 
striking incident in Burns's life is his journey to Edinburgh. 21. He 
left the estate with ten thousand pounds' debt upon it. — Steele. 
22. She smiled an almost wild smile. 23. It seemed to Mr. Esmond 
that the young prince was not unlike Castle wood. 

24. The browsing camels' bells are tinkling. 25. I don't care a bit 
about that. 26. Thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart. — Words- 
worth. 27. On the day following, we overtook Kearsley's wagons. 
28. I saw a tall peak rising among the woods. 29. I gave Roberts' boy 
my rifle. 30. You tell me that ff John Gilpin " made you laugh tears. — 
Cowper. 31. In another village I became acquainted with one of its 
most useful servants, the schoolmaster, who has a passion for music and 
is organist of a church. 32. The train was two hours late. 33. I spent 
a week at Sir Edward's. 34. Raymond's sister stayed a month. 35. I 
came here a week ago, and am paying my usual visits at the Brownes' 
and at Airy's. — FitzGerald. 36. I wrote the English captain's widow 
a full account of all my adventures. 37. Be true, O Clio, to thy hero's 
name. 38. Methinks an JEsop's fable you repeat. 39. The Muses' 
empire is restored again. — Dryden. 40. When Shakspere's plan is , 
understood, most of the criticisms of Rymer and Voltaire vanish away. 
— Johnson. 

4. Examine the nouns in the possessive case in 3, and tell 
which of the possessives might be replaced by an o/-phrase. 
Do you see any reason for preference ? 

5. Write sentences containing the possessive singular of — 

Sir William Crookes, Brown and Sewall (a firm), Horace, Agnes, 
godmother, sister-in-law, rock, Max, William, Mr. Williams, Socrates, 
Etna Match Company, United Shoe Stores, Erances, Erancis, iEneas, 
John Wills, N. P. Willis, William Collins. 

6. Write sentences containing the possessive plural of — 

deer, horse, Erenchman, Italian, musician, waitress, Mussulman, 
rook, ship, fireman, laundryman, major general, Mr. Moss, Miss Schurz, 
sheep, painter, strawberry, chimney, beau, soprano, hero, telegrapher, 
seamstress, whale, stonecutter. 

7. In which of the sentences that you have written (under 
5 and 6) would it be possible to substitute an of-phrase for the 
possessive ? In which of them (if any) would this phrase be 
preferable ? Why ? 



166 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 9 

(§§ 92-112, pp. 33-38) 

1. Write fifteen sentences, each containing a transitive verb 
and its direct object (§§ 94-95). 

2. Substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case. 

3. Write ten sentences containing both a direct object and 
a predicate objective (§ 100). 

4. Use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in § 104, 
each with both a direct and an indirect object. 

5. For each indirect object, substitute to with an object. 
Change the order, if necessary. 

6. Write ten sentences, each containing a cognate object 
(§110). 

7. Write ten sentences, each containing an adverbial objec- 
tive (§ 111). 

8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in apposition 
with a noun in the objective case (§ 112). 

EXERCISE 10 

(§§ 53-114, pp. 19-39) 

Parse every noun in Exercises 1-8, according to the models 
in § 114. 

EXERCISE 11 

(§§ 115-129, pp. 40-44) 

1. Parse the personal pronouns, using the models in § 166. 

1. Lankaster opened the door of the ugly yet luxurious room which 
had been assigned him. 2. For five long hours we clung to the rigging. 
3. He had seen the path of duty plain before him. 4. Madame Gilliard 
set herself to waken the boy. 5. We must all set our pocket watches 
by the clock of fate. 6. I wish to show you, some day, a letter which 
Hawthorne wrote to me. 7. He advised me to shift for myself. 8. The 
baron shut himself up in his chamber. 9. She bore herself well. 10. In 
a thousand apparently humble ways men busy themselves to make some 
right take the place of some wrong, and they are themselves so much 
the better morally for it. 



PEONOUNS 167 

11. ,f A storm, you fool you ! " replies he ; fr do you call that a storm ? 
Why, it was nothing at all ! " — Defoe. 12. I but repay a gift which I 
myself received. 13. We excused ourselves and went home. 14. He had 
with him both his rifle and yours. 15. A sturdy lad from New Hampshire 
or Vermont,- who in turn tries all the professions, who teams it, farms it, 
peddles, keeps a school, preaches, edits a newspaper, goes to Congress, 
buys a township, and so forth, in successive years, and always like a cat 
falls on his feet, is worth a hundred of these city dojls. — Emerson. 
16. Send me a letter directed to me at Mr. Watcham's. 17. Only her 
dog kept her company. 18. There is certainly a very keen appetite in 
curiosity. It cannot stay for satisfaction. It is pressing for its necessary 
repast, and is without all patience. — Defoe. 19. I had no thought of 
finding Kodman there, but one look convinced me that the younger of 
the two men was he. 20. No coward soul is mine. 

2. Write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the 
first person is used as direct object, as indirect object, as predi- 
cate nominative ; in the possessive singular with a noun ; in 
the possessive singular without a noun. 

3. Fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the 
third person. 

1. Mr. Richards is going to give girls an outing. 

2. Who told you it was ? 

3. I don't believe it, between you and . 

4. To Tom and was assigned the task of bringing the water. 

5. The last to arrive were Bob and . 

6. three were the best of friends. 

7. We all thought the winner would be . 

8. I can run faster than . 

9. He was in a worse plight than . 

10. Frank is of the same age as . 

11. I am older than Frank or . 

12. That man looks like . 

13. Who is it? . 

14. Florence would not be interested in such a person as . 

15. If you were « , would you go ? 

16. I like both, particularly . 

17. All but two voted to camp there. 

4. Write sentences in which myself, yourself, ourselves, him- 
self, herself, themselves are used (1) intensively, (2) reflexively 
as direct object, (3) reflexively as indirect object. 



168 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 12 

(§§ 131-142, pp. 44-47) 

1. Parse the demonstratives and the indefinites. In parsing 
the word, tell whether it is used as a pronoun or as an adjec-. 
tive. If it is used as a pronoun, tell the number and the ease 
and give the reason for the case. If it is used as an adjective, 
mention the substantive which it modifies. 

1. Those wicked creatures yet do look well-favored. — Shakspere. 
2. The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by loftiness of 
speech ; that of Dante by intensity of feeling. — Macaulay. 3. This was 
a merry message. 4. Where are these lads ? Where are these hearts ? 
5. Here can I sit alone, unseen by any. 6. Hostile theories correct each 
other. — Macaulay. 7. He had not the same features as those of other 
Indians. 8. I cannot recall any form of man who is not superfluous 
sometimes. — Emerson. 9. These are plain pleasures, kindly and native 
to us. 10. These men were thorough savages. 11. Some tender money 
to me ; some invite me. — Shakspere. 

12. A universe lies beyond yon glimmering star. 13. Everything the 
good man said was full of affection. 14. It was impossible to make them 
understand anything. 15. This touched my heart a little. 16. Nothing 
can describe the confusion of thought which I felt. 17, Besides these 
things, I took all the clothes that I could find. 18. Every day at low 
water I went on board and brought away something or other. 19. Either 
will do. 20. Every one was anxious to know the hour of our departure. 
21. All shouted assent. 22. I yield to none in my admiration for that 
heroic soul. 23. As they footed slowly up the aisle, each one took a 
moment's glance at the Englishman. 24. Several faltered by the way. 

2. Pill each, blank with a personal pronoun (§ 141). 

1. Everybody brought golf clubs. 

2. Any one may have money refunded if it rains. 

3. We were told that each must await turn. 

4. A person might easily miss way here. 

5. If anybody calls, tell I am busy. 

6. Each one of us has troubles. 

7. The prisoners were led up, each in turn. 

8. Every one who was present received money. 

9. Ten carts went by, each with load. 

10. Each of you is expected to do duty. 



PEONOUNS 169 

EXERCISE 13 

(§§ 143-160, pp. 47-53) 
1. Parse the relatives, using the models in § 166. 

1. That which we are, we are. — Tennyson. 2. Whatever objections 
you have to make must be made now. 3. Let what is broken, so remain. 
4. This has been a great trial to me, who am eloquent and free in my 
own tongue. — Margaret Fuller. 5. Whoso loveth instruction loveth 
knowledge : but he that hateth reproof is brutish. 6. We little antici- 
pated such eagerness of hospitality as we were met with. 7. He once 
more found a friend, who sheltered him in his own house. 8. A hero of 
fiction that never existed is just as valuable to me as a hero of history 
that existed a thousand years since. — Irving. 9. There is nothing that 
a very young man can write that will not be full of faults. 

10. This is one of the Doctor's most intimate friends, with whom he 
dines once every week. 11. Never did I see any one whose brow the 
world hurried and crowded so to crown, who had so little vanity and so 
much pure humility. 12. Except in cases of necessity, which are rare, 
leave your friend to learn unpleasant truths from his enemies. — Holmes. 
13. You need not get up a rebellion against what I say. 14. His hair, 
which was black and straight, was not very long. 15. Whatever were 
his reasons, it is certain that he declined the offer. 16. What honors, 
if any, were paid to his remains is uncertain. 17. The summit of this 
larger mound is said to have been crowned with a temple, in which was 
a colossal statue. 18. The young fellow whom I have so often mentioned 
was a little free in his remarks. 

19. They were attached to one of the Santa Fe companies, whose 
wagons were crowded together on the banks above. 20. I have an 
excellent scheme on hand which I cannot tell you of now. 21. What 
attracts my attention shall have it. 22. He is a good man who can re- 
ceive a gift well. 23. There was no cavalier in the army whose loss 
would have been so deeply deplored by the commander. 24. The death 
of Maxixca was deeply regretted by the troops, who lost in him a true 
and most efficient ally. 25. I '11 tell you what the Professor said to the 
poet the other day. 26. The rapidity with which ideas grow old in our 
memories is in a .direct ratio to the squares of their importance. — 
Holmes. 27. Give my respects to Madam Emerson, whose Concord face 
I should be glad to see here this summer. — Thoreau. 28. Write a long 
novel, one that we can dive into with confidence, and not feel that we 
are to strike bottom at the first plunge. — O. D. Warner. 29. This was 
the oddest adventure that could have happened. 30. By five o'clock we 
were at a little village whose name I forget. 



170 EXERCISES 

2. Point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in 
1 (above). 

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a descriptive rela- 
tive ; ten sentences, each containing a restrictive relative. 

4. Fill the blanks with relatives. In the first eight sentences, 
at least, use who or whom. 

1. I know the man you talked with. 

2. Every one you know is out of town. 

3. The urchin we paid was not the one brought the 

message. 

4. Ask the policeman stands at the door. 

5. The policeman I asked could not tell me. 

6. I have seen the governor, , I believe, will sign the pardon. 

7. I have seen the man I believed to be the governor. 

8. Did you give the letter to the messenger called ? 

9. That newspaper — — has the largest circulation is not necessarily 
the best. 

10. He gave me the directions I needed. 

11. He gave me such directions I needed. 

12. He gave me directions I needed. 

13. Every child saw the puppies wanted one. 

14. Did you notice the picture your brother was looking at ? 

15. I gave a lump of sugar to Tom's horse, is very fond of 

sweets. 

16. This is by the same author your book. 

17. The horse I wanted was not in the stable. 

18. All I am I owe to my father. 

19. Here is the article to I referred. 

20. Here is the article I referred to. 

5. Supply the relatives that are ^understood " (§ 150). 

1. He is the most accurate accountant I know. 

2. I have lost every dollar I own. 

3. Every boy I saw was barefoot. 

4. A new hat is the only thing I need. 

5. Did you like the first selection I played ? 

6. The book I want is on the top shelf. 

7. You may have all the apples you wish. 

8. You may ask anybody you like. 

9. All the people I knew were out of town. 
10. The first person I saw was John. 



PBONOUNS 171 

EXERCISE 14 

(§§ 161-165, pp. 53-54) 

Parse the interrogative pronouns, mentioning gender, num- 
ber, person, and case. If the interrogative word is an adjective, 
tell what noun it limits. 

I. Who hath the office? 2. "You have done what?" said he. 
3. Whose was it ? 4. Which means she to deceive, father or mother ? 
5. What news on the Rialto ? 6. What advantage do you expect to 
gain? 7. Who knows what disaster may arise? 8. To what do you 
refer ? 9. About what did you pay ? 10. Who was that silly body ? 
11. For whom were you inquiring? 12. From which direction is the 
wind blowing? 13. "What is history," said Napoleon, "but a fable 
agreed upon?" 14. Which debt must I pay first? 15. What is the 
hardest task in the world ? To think. — Emerson. 16. By what witch- 
craft were ye brought hither? 17. In whose interest are you acting? 
18. "Very good, Mr. Constable," says the justice; "what must we do 
now?" 19. Who w r ould have thought that the clangorous noise of a 
smith's hammers should have given the first rise to music ? — Steele. 

EXERCISE 15 

(§§ 161-163, pp. 53-54) 

Fill each blank with who or whom, as the construction may 
require. Is the pronoun relative or interrogative ? 

1. do you wish to see ? 

2. Here is a boy wishes to speak to you. 

3. Give the key to the man I pointed out to you. 

4. did you say this parcel was for ? 

5 . called me ? 

6. I ran into a young man was looking at a shop window. 

7. I ran into a young man I had not noticed. 

8. can you recommend ? 

9. The conductor, I knew, was very courteous. 

10. The conductor, was impatient to start, looked angry. 

II. do you think will win ? 

12. did you think I was ? 

13. He asked me I was. 

14. did you give the letter to ? 

15. shall we ask ? 



172 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 16 

(§§ 115-166, pp. 40-54) 

Point out each pronoun ; tell to what class it belongs, and give 
its construction. Do the same in Exercises 1, 3, and 4. 

1. One can think in three seconds what cannot be written down in 
thirty. 2. The two young men, regarding each other with looks of sullen 
displeasure, drew off in different directions. 3. Every one scrambled up 
again. 4. Truly it demands something godlike in him who has cast off 
the common motives of humanity and has ventured to trust himself for a 
taskmaster. — Emerson. 5. That morning's march was one not easily 
to be forgotten. 6. What is there in old Dante's face that is missing in 
Goethe's ? 7. What I do and what I dream include thee. 

8. Mrs. Proudie had no doubt intended to have Mr. Chadwick all to 
herself. 9. Open, locks, whoever knocks! — Shakspere. 10. Which is 
the way ? 11. It is a beauteous evening, calm and free. 12. Where lies 
the land to which yon ship would go ? 13. What little remainder of corn 
had been in the bag was all devoured by the rats. 14. She would risk 
nothing. 15. Our conductor soon led us out of the lane and across 
country. 

EXERCISE 17 

(§§ 167-187, pp. 55-60) 

1. Point out every adjective. Tell whether it is descriptive 
or definitive (limiting) (§§ 167-169), and mention the substan- 
tive to which it belongs. If the adjective can be compared, 
give its three degrees of comparison. 

2. Point out the comparatives and the superlatives. Mention 
any superlatives used for emphasis (§ 199). 

1. The porter gave me a scornful look. 2. A tumble-down shed stood 
in the hollow. 3. The American Indians are becoming extinct. 4. I 
gave the boy a copper coin. 5. A political change, silent and gradual, 
but of the highest importance, was in daily progress. 6. The most 
ancient heavens, through Thee, are fresh and strong. — Wordsworth. 
7. Did you ever see an uglier face ? 8. Napoleon was a man of endless 
resources. 9. He cut it short. 10. Sleep, solemn and profound, dwelt 
over the lonely islands. 11. There was a dead silence through our camp. 
12. Discretion points out the noblest ends to us, and pursues the most 
proper and laudable methods of attaining them. — Addison. 



ADJECTIVES 173 

13. When I awoke again, there was a fresh damp smell in the air, 
a gray twilight involved the prairie, and above its eastern verge was a 
streak of cold red sky. 14. My thoughts are ever of you, my clearest 
wife. 15. The recurrence of precisely the same circumstances brought 
up precisely the same idea. 16. I have always tried to be gentle with 
the most hopeless cases. — Holmes. 17. One of these young brains is 
like a bunch of India crackers. 18. Striking his iron heel into his weary 
steed, he plunged headlong into the thickest of the press. 

19. As Montezuma gazed on the ferocious features, 1 rendered more 
horrible by death, he seemed to read in them the dark lineaments of 
the destined destroyers of his house. 20. I suppose each belligerent 
nation has a plan of the other's fortified places. 21. Some wondering 
child upon the bank would stare after us until we turned the corner. 
22. The roofs seemed to tumble uphill one upon another, in the oddest 
disorder. 23. In the middle of all this felicity, one blow from unseen 
Providence unhinged me at once. 24. It is given to few men to be poets. 

3. Write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives ; 
five containing definitive (limiting) adjectives. 

4. Write sentences containing demonstrative, indefinite, rela- 
tive, and interrogative adjectives. 

5. Write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly 
followed by — 

orifice, haul, hotel, honor, youth, eulogy, apple, histrionic, help, use- 
ful, hopeful, heap, humorous, humiliating, usurper, hypocrisy, excellent, 
European, humane, human. 

EXERCISE 18 

(§§ 188-197, pp. 61-64) 

1. Parse each adverb as directed in § 206. 

1. Wearily and anxiously hour after hour passed away. 2. Some- 
times, but rarely, one may be caught making the same speech twice 
over, and yet be > held blameless. 3. Little did the Bazins know how 
much they served us. 4. Kine, and horses, and little humorous donkeys, 
browse together in the meadows, and come down in troops to the river- 
side to drink. 5. His caution was so seasonable, and his advice so good, 
that I could not but be very well pleased with his proposal. 6. I am 
heartily tired of Liverpool. 7. I was perfectly convulsed with laughter. 
8. Never did old bachelor come to such a loving home. 



174 EXEECISES 

9. You swim well enough to reach the shore. 10. Deep asleep he 
seemed, yet all awake. 11. Soon he plied both whip and spur. 12. The 
chief in silence strode before. 13. I won't talk about these things now. 
14. Lively emotions very commonly do not strike us full in front, but 
obliquely from the side. 15. They were almost starved for want of 
provisions. 16. I know and see too well, when not voluntarily blind, 
the speedy limits of persons called high and worthy. — Emerson. 

2. Form an adverb of manner from each of the following ad- 
jectives. Use each adverb in a sentence. Tell what it modifies. 

rapid, useful, sullen, rich, elegant, savage, vivid, fierce, dull, pleasant, 
bright, delicate, handsome, false, cynical, hopeful, jubilant, smooth, 
discordant. 

3. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the 
adjective or the adverb. 

1. The sky was cloudy. 

2. Felix was tired that he could scarcely walk. 

3. This plank is not heavy for your bridge. 

4. You can do it more easily the second time. 

5. The cistern was full. 

6. The distance is great for walking. 

7. I will write often as I can. 

8. Robert is not particular as you are. 

9. The hill was steeper than we expected. 

10. That is bad. 

11. Return soon as possible. 

EXERCISE 19 

(§§ 193-195, pp. 62-63) 

1. Point out the relative adverbs, and mention the subordi- 
nate clause introduced by each. Tell whether each adverb 
expresses time, place, or manner. 

1. Wherever sorrow is, relief would be. 2. The terrible day wore on, 
without any lightening of the tempest, till noon, when the wind suddenly 
fell to a calm. 3. As we read in these delightful volumes of the Tatler 
and the Spectator, the past age returns, the England of our ancestors is 
revivified. — Thackeray. 4. It is an odd thing how happily two people, 
if there are two, can live in a place where they have no acquaintance. 



ADVERBS 175 

5. He was let loose among the woods as soon as he was able to ride on 
horseback. 6. As long as I hear truth, I am bathed by a beautiful element 
and am not conscious of any limits to my nature. — Emerson. 

7. Whenever I return to Salem, I feel how dark my life would be with- 
out the light that you shed upon it. — Hawthorne. 8. As I was sitting 
after dinner in my elbow-chair, I took up Homer. 9. All our days are so 
unprofitable while they pass, that 't is wonderful where or when we ever 
get anything of this which we call wisdom, poetry, virtue. — Emerson. 
10. It was not long before they brought the men in. 11. As I passed 
through Cheapside, I saw crowds of people turning down towards the 
Bank. 12. The very next day after this wall was finished, I had almost 
ha,d all my labors overthrown at once. 13. Whenever a mind is simple 
and receives a divine wisdom, old things pass away. — Emerson. 

2. Point out the interrogative adverbs, and tell what each 
modifies. 

1. Why do I see my people here in arms against the palace of my 
fathers ? 2. Where do we find ourselves ? 3. How canst thou become 
such a hypocrite ? 4. Whither are you bound, my lad ? 5. Whence 
comes this terrible summons ? 6. When shall we three meet again ? 
7. How often must we learn this lesson ? 8. Why are you always late ? 

3. Write ten sentences containing relative adverbs ; ten 
containing interrogative adverbs. 

EXERCISE 20 

(§§ 196-201, pp. 63-65) 

1. Write sentences containing either the comparative or the 
superlative of the following adjectives or adverbs : — 

well, slowly, active, soft, late, ill, swift, respectable, sudden, gently, 
good, much, high, bad, far, important, cheerfully, able, rare, rarely, low, 
artificial. 

2. Point out the comparatives and superlatives. Tell whether 
each is an adjective or an adverb. 

1. The more business he got, the greater seemed to be his power of 
getting at its pith and marrow. 2. A quainter corner than the corner 
where the Doctor lived was not to be found in London. 3. The most 
barefaced action seeks to veil itself under some show of decency. 4. It 
is the truest word ever spoken. 5. I ought to love Salem better than 



176 EXEECISES 

I do. 6. At Appledore, one of the larger of these islands, I have spent 
many happy days. 7. Which of us has gained the most ? 8. The most 
wonderful climber I ever saw was the trumpet-vine of the West. 9. And 
now I saw how easy it was for the providence of God to make the most 
miserable condition that mankind could be in worse. — Defoe. 10. He 
felt sure that Mr. Slope had some deeper motive. 

EXERCISE 21 

(§§ 202-205, pp. 65-66) 

1. Write five sentences in which cardinal numerals are adjec- 
tives, five in which they are nouns. Use the same numerals in 
the ordinal form as adjectives, as nouns. 

2. Write five sentences, each containing a numeral adverb ; 
five containing an adverbial phrase that includes a numeral. 

EXERCISE 22 

(§§ 207-213, pp. 67-69) 

1. Point out the verbs and verb-phrases. Tell whether each 
is transitive or intransitive. Tell which are copulative (linking) ; 
which are auxiliary. Mention any examples of the copula. 

1. The head gardener opened the gate for me. 2. The country behind 
him was a wilderness ; and soon the country before him became equally 
desolate. 3. I have studied eight or nine wise words to speak to you. — 
Shakspere. 4. The gale, unimpeded, again roared among our shrouds, 
and the sea broke over us. 5, By this time he and his two horses had 
engrossed the attention of the whole crowd. 6. He had deposited a large 
well-filled bag, made of skins, on the pavement. 7. We had run full tilt 
into a fog bank apparently packed with ships, and were saving ourselves 
and them by guesswork while stopping the way on our boat. 8. Dis- 
content was spreading fast through all the ranks of the party. 9. My 
mother would have denounced my day-dreams sternly enough, had she 
known of their existence. 

10. Hilda had been waiting an hour in the rain. 11. The contest was 
sharp. 12. Her eyes grew wild and strange. 13. You will have heard, 
perhaps, that I wrote to my mother. 14. Ricker became pale as death. 

15. He was the son of a merchant in London, who — like Rowe — from 
small beginnings had raised himself to the highest honors of the city. 

16. My friend Sir Roger sat very silent. 17. Good breeding shows 
itself most where, to any ordinary eye, it appears the least. — Addison. 



VERBS 177 

18. Mowbray Donne wrote that he sent you the fragments I had saved 
and transcribed of Morton's letters. 19. The new heir had at once 
made himself an exceedingly respectable member of society. 20. The 
lad seems honest enough. 21. You may see me sitting on the floor 
of my verandah haranguing and being harangued by squatting chiefs 
on a question of a road. — Stevenson. 22. Lothair seemed surprised 
and a little agitated. 

2. Frame twenty sentences, each containing a Verb-phrase. 
Use the auxiliaries mentioned in § 208. Let some of the sen- 
tences be interrogative. 

3. Make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one 
sense, intransitive in another (§210). Use these verbs in 
sentences. 

4. Illustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing 
ten sentences (§ 211). 

5. Make a list of six copulative (or linking) verbs (§ 212). 
Use them in sentences. Frame sentences in which the same 
verbs are not copulative (§ 213). 

6. Use the copula (§ 212) in twenty sentences, several of 
which shall illustrate its use in verb-phrases. 

EXERCISE 23 

(§§ 216-223, pp. 70-73) 

1. Write ten sentences in each of which a regular verb is 
used in the past tense ; ten, in each of which an irregular verb 
is used in the past tense. 

2. Construct sentences in which the past tense of each of 
the following verbs is used : drink, lie, sow, get, wake, dwell, 
sing, pay, bid, light, bereave, build, ride, hang, swim, lay, split, 
shrink, slay, taring, weave, thrive, spin, tread, shake, burst, slink, 
dive, flee, fly, swing, wet, fling, kneel, let, chide. 

3. Point out all the verbs (except the copula and auxiliaries) 
in Exercise 22, 1, and conjugate them in the present and the 
past tense. Tell which are regular and which are irregular. 
Account for the person and number. 



178 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 24 

(§§ 224-231, pp. 73-75) 

1. Write five sentences illustrating the impersonal use of it; 
five in which it is used as an expletive. 

2. Fill each blank with am, is, or are. 

1. You and I mistaken. 

2. Either you mistaken or I . 

3. Neither of us mistaken. 

4. Both of us mistaken. 

5. Economics difficult for me. 

6. A number of children hanging about. 

7. The number of children in this street remarkable. 

8. The set of six ten dollars. 

9. The contents of the box missing. 

10. His one end and aim in life to make money. 

11. A series of accidents reported in to-night's paper. 

12. He is one of the ablest mechanics who to be found. 

13. Three weeks a short vacation. 

14. The crowd enormous. 

15. The crowd fighting among themselves. 

16. A woman with four or five children coming up the street. 

17. Half the oranges spoiled. 

18. Neither physics nor mathematics required. 

19. Smith's ff Eeflections " dull reading. 

20. Is it Latin or geometry that hard ? 

21. Do you think that Latin and geometry hard ? 

22. A collection of six hundred coins for sale. 

23. One or two boys in sight. 

24. A boy or two in sight. 

25. John, together with Charles and Mary, to be promoted. 

26. I am one of those men who never good at games. 

27. Neither Jane nor Emma at home. 

28. The captain, as well as the crew, safe. 

29. No iron or copper found in this region. 

3. Make a list of ten collective nouns. Use them in sentences 
(1) with a singular verb, (2) with a plural verb. Explain the 
difference in meaning. 

4. Use the relative who in ten sentences in which the ante- 
cedent is in the first or the second person. 



VEEBS 179 

EXERCISE 25 

(§§ 232-237, pp. 76-78) 
1. Explain the use of will and shall, 

I. Fourfold to the poor man he shall return. 2. What shall you do 
to me when I ridicule Rex ? 3. The cough is a mere nothing ; it will not 
kill me. I shall not die of a cough. 4. "Come," I said with decision, 
rf we will go back." 5. Here shall the traveller stay his weary feet. 
6. fr Oh, you are ungrateful to our Mother Earth !" rejoined I. "Come 
what may, I never will forget her." 7. There will be no peril if we are 
prompt and firm. 8. You shall see the little paper after dinner, if you 
care to look through it. 9. No, Teackle, there will be no delay until 
to-morrow. Mr. Willits has forfeited every claim to being my guest, 
and I will fight him here and now. 10. Won't you let me help you on 
with your cloak ? 

II. I will tell Wills to send me the proof, and will try to show you 
what I mean when I shall have gone over it carefully. — Dickens. 
12. I shall be glad to think of your all being at home again, as I sup- 
pose you will be soon. 13. All the strange incidents that happen in my 
journeys I shall be sure to acquaint you with. — Gray. 14. I shall be 
happy to see you. 15. We shall dine at one o'clock. 16. I fear you will 
have too busy a day on Monday. 17. Will no one tell me what she sings ? 
18. I will confess that I thought your letter somewhat tardy. 19. Will 
you tell Mary that I have had a letter from Frith ? 20. Full particulars 
of the interview shall be duly announced. 

21. We shall reach York on Saturday. 22. Yonder, over mountains 
and valley, lies Rome. Shall you return thither in the autumn ? 23. A 
land of slaves shall ne'er be mine. 24. Shall we see you before you 
leave Paris ? 25. Shall I expect you to-morrow morning ? 26. Will 
you come and breakfast with me on Tuesday? 27. This letter shall go 
to-morrow. 28. We shall soon hear what the Dutch say. 29. I '11 go 
to sleep ; 'tis past twelve. 30. What will this come to ? 31. I will not 
be their governor. 32. I think I '11 put on my waistcoat to-day. Shall I ? 
33. "Now, Mr. Gresham," said she, ff before you go any further you 
shall listen to me. Will you listen to me for a moment without inter- 
rupting me?" 34. "At least," Sir Robert said, "you will be civil to 
her, if she comes, I hope." "Of course I will," answered Guy, laughing. 
35. When shall you have any rosebuds ? 36. They shall listen to me ! 
I will save them ! Justice and good sense shall triumph ! 37. I must 
and will root out my prejudice against him. 38. If my friend thought 
me witty before, he shall think me ten times more witty hereafter ; where 
I joked once, I will joke five times, and for one sensible remark I will 
send him a dozen. — Cowper. 



180 EXEKCISES 

2. Fill each blank with will or shall. 

1. I send you a ticket if you wish. 

2. We return to New York for the holidays. 

3. They never forgive you. 

4. You see the pageant if I can arrange it. 

5. If you are in Boston next month, you see the pageant. 

6. On receipt of this order you proceed to break camp. 

7. I be glad to lend you the money. 

8. I gladly lend you the money. 

9. You persist in leaving that door open. 

10. Robert arrive next week. 

11. Morrison hear of your treachery if it costs me my life. 

12. Morrison hear of your treachery if we do not take care. 

13. I have to overlook the insult, I suppose. 

14. We be late if we do not hurry. 

15. I have to go now. 

16. We be glad to hear from you. 

17. The audience please not applaud. 

18. If Henry leaves town, we miss him. 

19. I not accept the invitation if I can help it. 

20. I not accept your apology, even if you go on your knees. 

3. Write declarative sentences, using will or shall in the 
first person (singular or plural) to express a threat, a promise, 
resolution, consent, desire, determination, simple futurity. 

4. Fill the blanks in the following questions with will or 
shall. Write sentences (using will or shall) in answer. 

1. you need me any longer ? 

2. we invite him to dine with us ? 

3. you do as I say, or I make you ? 

4. I go to the door ? 

5. James go to the door ? 

6. you go to the door, James ? 

7. you be angry if I tell you my reason ? 

8. we encourage such recklessness ? 

9. you forgive me ? 

10. I forgive you ? Of course I . 

11. Richard and Herbert please come to the desk? 

12. they be allowed to make that noise ? 

13. we proceed to business ? 

14. he try to prevent the parade ? 

15. the parade be given up if it rains ? 



TENSES AND VOICE 181 

EXERCISE 26 

(§§ 238-241, pp. 78-79) 

1. Name all the complete (or compound) tenses and explain 
their formation. 

1. It had been discovered that Dundee had paid visits to the Castle. 
2. I am just come to town. — Gray. 3. In another week the carpenters 
will have finished their work. 4. Having proceeded thus far without 
accident, I began to take heart. 5. Many already have fled to the forest, 
and lurk on its outskirts. 6. I 've travelled like a comet. 7. The heath 
wore the appearance of an installment of night which had taken up its 
place before its astronomical hour was come. — Hardy. 8. You have 
read the tragedy he has just finished, haven't you? 

2. Construct ten sentences in which the verbs in Exercise 
23, 2, are used in the perfect (present perfect) tense. 

3. Turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect 
(past perfect) tense ; into the future perfect tense. Write sen- 
tences in which the same verbs are used as perfect (or phrasal 
past) participles ; as perfect (or past) infinitives. 

EXERCISE 27 
(§§ 242-250, pp. 79-84) 

1. Tell whether each verb is in the active or the passive voice. 

2. If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make 
such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is passive, 
change it to the active. 

3. Conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs. 

1. The only spot of bright color in the room was made by the hair 
of a tall maiden of seventeen or eighteen. 2. The mutiny was at once 
suppressed, and the leading mutineers were sent aboard the armed 
vessel. 3. The earl received him with the most friendly cordiality. 
4. Tressilian and his attendants were stopped and questioned repeatedly 
by sentinels. 5. The young cavalier was, in the meanwhile, guided to 
the waterside by the pensioner. 6. The opposing parties eyed each other 
with looks of eager hatred and scorn ; but they were restrained by the 
strict commands of their leaders, and overawed, perhaps, by the presence 
of an armed band of unusual strength. 



182 EXEECISES 

7. The nobles and courtiers who had attended the queen on her 
pleasure expedition, were invited, with royal hospitality, to a splendid 
banquet in the hall of the palace. 8. This island is separated from the 
mainland by a scarcely perceptible creek, oozing its way through a wil- 
derness of reeds. 9. I immediately kindled a fire and subjected every 
portion of the parchment to a glowing heat. 10. An indescribable un- 
easiness possessed me. 11. To the ill-starred Burns was given the power 
of making man's life more venerable, but that of wisely guiding his own 
life was not given. — Carlyle. 

12. We view the world with our own eyes, each of us ; and we make 
from within us the world we see. — Thackeray. 13. My heart is turned 
to stone ; I strike it and it hurts my hand. — Shakspere. 14. Nothing 
remarkable was ever accomplished in a prosaic mood. — Thoreau. 15. A 
weary heart gets no gladness out of sunshine. — Thackeray. 16. The 
minister was informed that he was a prisoner. 17. The bleak wind of 
March made her tremble and shiver. — Hood. 

4. Kewrite the following sentences, changing the form of the 
verbs from active to passive, or from passive to active. Notice 
the effect upon subjects and objects. 

1. Suddenly he was roused by the sound of footsteps. 2. The spell 
was broken by a sound of carriage wheels. 3. The rights of the savage 
have seldom been properly appreciated or respected by the white man. 
4. A general assault was resolved on for the next day. 5. The inn was 
beset by robbers. 6. Man cannot fix his eye on the sun. 7. I received 
your letter yesterday evening. 8. The messenger was arrested, interro- 
gated, and searched ; and the letters were found. 

9. Then in the golden weather the maize was husked. 10. The 
slope was strewn with lopped branches. 11. As a neighbor was lately 
ploughing in a dry chalky field, far removed from any water, he turned 
out a water rat. 12. I have just been ordered on a journey by the 
powers that be. 13. Their wretchedness excites rather horror than pity. 
14. Swallows are seen later at Oxford than elsewhere. 

5. Write ten sentences, each containing a predicate nomina- 
tive used after a passive (§ 248). 

6. Use each of the following verbs in both the active and the 
passive of the past, the future, and the perfect (or present 
perfect) : — send, bring, teach, get, set, lay, leave, find, forget. 

7. Use each of the verbs in § 104 in the active voice of the 
past tense with both a direct and an indirect object. Change 
to the passive. 



PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC PHRASES 183 

EXERCISE 28 
(§§ 251-256, pp. 84-86) 

1. Point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb- 
phrases. Mention the tense, and voice of each. Note any in- 
stances where do and did are not emphatic. 

1. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. — Wordsworth. 
2. The white breakers were rushing to the shore. 3. She had told me 
that she never could believe that the earth was moving constantly. 4. We 
English gentlemen hate the name of a lie ; but how often do we find 
public men who believe each other's words? — Trollope. 5. Do not 
forget us. 6. Don't give way to laziness, and do proceed with that play. 
7. Gaily the plume of the horseman was dancing. 

8. Addison was fast hastening to his grave. 9. The fool doth think 
he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool. — Shakspere. 

10. Mr. Millbank did not seem to be conscious of his daughter's silence. 

11. I have been suffering from another kind of malady. 12. I am going 
off, I don't know where or how far, to ponder about I don't know what. 
13. I am settling down to work again. 

2. Write sentences in which the verb sing is used in the 
progressive form of the present, past, future, perfect (present 
perfect), pluperfect (past perfect), and future perfect tenses of 
the active voice. 

3. Write ten questions containing some form of do (or did). 

EXERCISE 29 

(§§ 257-281, pp. 86-93) 

Point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive 
mood. Tell the subjects of the imperatives and explain the 
forms and uses of the subjunctives. 

1. Set the triple crown upon his head. 2. Though this be madness, 
yet there's method • in 't. 3. Would all were well 1 but that will never 
be. — Shakspere. 4. Learn to admire rightly. — Thackeray. 5. Be 
his banner unconquered, resistless his spear. — Scott. 6. Wear your 
learning, like your watch, in a private pocket, and do not pull it out 
and strike it merely to show you have one. — Chesterfield. 7. This, 
could it always succeed, were the true method of destroying the enemies 
of a state. — Goldsmith. 8. Heavens defend me from that Welsh fairy, 



184 EXERCISES 

lest he transform me! — Shakspere. 9. Pray consider in what way 
you can do it. 10. Be of good cheer, youth. 11. Had I mother or 
sister, I should hesitate to let her embark in that ship. 

12. Did these prejudices prevail only among the meanest and lowest 
of the people, perhaps they might be excused. — Goldsmith. 13. I will 
not show my face until my husband bid me. 14. God be with you ! 
15. Do come ! 16. Say what I would, the boys thought they knew 
better. 17. So go on and prosper. 18. Come what may, I am resolved 
to open the box. 19. They shiver in their loneliness, be it on a moun- 
tain top or in a dungeon. 20. Go, shepherd, and untie the wattled cotes. 
21. Accept my thanks for the pleasure you have given me. 22. let 
my weakness have an end. 

23. Beware Macduff ! 24. Short be my speech ! 25. God and fair 
winds direct him to his home ! 26. Well, heaven send Anne Page no 
worse fortune ! 27. Peace be with their ashes. 28. The gods give us joy I 
29. Have patience. 30. Don't come back too soon. Take time and get 
well restored. 31. Let me congratulate you on your marriage. 32. May 
you decide with wisdom. 33. Be still, my soul ! 34. Pray heaven I be 
deceived in you ! 35. Let your own discretion be your tutor. 36. Let 
not Ambition mock their useful toil. — Gray. 37. Waste not, want not. 



EXERCISE 30 

(§§ 267-281, pp. 89-93) 

I. Fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form. 

1. I wouldn't touch that if I you. 

2. it rained, we should not have gone. 

3. it to rain, we should not go. 

4. you been willing, I should have bought the house. 

5. If you willing, I should buy the house. 

6. He acted as if he afraid. 

7. Even if you to sell the car, you could not pay your debts. 

[Use the copula.] 

8. Unless John to resign, I could not possibly offer you a posi- 
tion. [Use the copula.] 

9. I didn't mean to insult him, even if I angry. 

10. I wouldn't insult him, even if I angry. 

II. Would that this suspense over ! 

12. She had better write down the address lest she it. 

13. Though he to make restitution, he could never be respected 

again. 

14. If he my employer, I should ask him for a vacation. 



MODAL AUXILIARIES 185 

15. Though he my worst enemy, I should still pity him. 

16. I shall be sorry to fail, even if the matter of slight account. 

17. I should have been sorry to fail, even if the matter of slight 

account. 

18. Unless he to offer me a good sum, I should not sell. 

19. If John had not lost the train, he here by this time. 

20. You look as if you very tired. 

21. You looked as if you very tired. 

2. Parse the indicatives, subjunctives, and imperatives in 
Exercises 28 and 29, using the models that follow : — 

1. Say what I would, the boys thought they knew better. 

Say is a regular, transitive verb — principal parts, say, said, said — 
in the present tense, subjunctive mood, active voice. It is in the first 
person, singular number, agreeing with its subject I (understood). 1 The 
subjunctive expresses concession (§ 276). 

Thought is an irregular, transitive verb — principal parts, think, thought, 
thought — in the past tense, indicative mood, active voice. It is in the 
'third person, plural number, agreeing with its subject boys. 

Knew is an irregular, transitive verb used absolutely (§ 211) — principal 
parts, know, knew, known — in the past tense, indicative mood, active 
voice. It is in the third person, plural number, agreeing with its subject 
they. 

2. Do send me your brother's address. 

Do send is a regular, transitive verb — principal parts, send, sent, sent 
— in the emphatic form of the present tense, imperative mood, active 
voice. It is in the second person, plural number (singular in sense), 2 
agreeing with its subject you (understood). 



EXERCISE 31 

(§§ 282-290, pp. 93-96) 

Explain the meaning of each potential verb-phrase, and 
parse the phrase., In parsing such a phrase, describe it merely 
as a potential verb-phrase, and tell the tense, voice, person, and 
number, without assigning it to any mood. 

1 Or, more briefly: — "in the present subjunctive active, first person sin- 
gular, agreeing," etc. 

2 Or " singular number," if that method is preferred (see §§ 119, 223). 



186 EXERCISES 

I. I could see no more ; my heart swelled into my throat ; my eyes 
filled with tears. — Irving. 2. Reflection, you may come to-morrow. 
3. I must tell you a feat of my dog Beau. 4. One cannot be angry with 
such a fellow. 5. So shy a man can never have been popular. 6. You 
should not have believed me. 7. Could beauty, my lord, have better 
commerce than with honesty? 8. Why should I not seek for brother- 
hood and alliance with a Saracen ? 9. I must be idle. 10. Do you think 
you could manage to go ? 

II. May Heaven prosper his intentions ! 12. Can you and will you 
be in town on Wednesday ? 13. Mr. Tryon might well rejoice. 14. His 
horse's hoofs may be heard any morning before daylight. 15. Neither 
of you can forgive what the other has done. 16. The moral may, I hope, 
be useful. 17. Sometimes they would chide, and sometimes they would 
quite neglect him. 18. We must close up the ranks and march on. 
19. I should like to see you all very much indeed. 

EXERCISE 32 

(§§ 284-286, p. 95) 

Write ten sentences asking permission in the first, second, 
and third persons. Write sentences (1) granting these requests ; 
(2) refusing them. 

EXERCISE 33 

(§§ 288-300, pp. 95-100) 

1. Justify the use of the auxiliary (should or would). In 
some of the sentences, should might be substituted for would 
or would for should. Which are they ? 

1. I have also commanded in my will that you should live together 
in one house like brethren and friends. 2. His friends looked for it 
only in the Greek Calends — say on the 31st of April, when that should 
come round. 3. All this belongs to one of the side-shows, to which I 
promised those who would take tickets to the main exhibition should 
have entrance gratis. — Holmes. 4. A defeat would be fatal to the 
whole undertaking. 5. The little vessel, dipping her jib-boom into the 
"tumbling froth, would go on running in a smooth, glassy hollow, a deep 
valley between two ridges of the sea. 6. There are some opinions in 
which a man should stand neuter, without engaging his assent to one 
side or the other. — Addison. 



SHALL AND WILL 187 

7. She would sometimes draw in her breath as he came near, and the 
pupils of her vacant eyes would contract with horror or fear. 8. I think 
that I should like it to be always summer. 9. I would come if I could. 
10. If I were you, I would offer my resignation at once. 11. The chil- 
dren of the village would shout with joy whenever he approached. 

12. I should not dare to call myself a poet. 13. If I were writing a 
poem, you would expect, as a matter of course, that there would be a 
digression now and then. 14. If the history of this beach could be 
written from beginning to end, it would be a thrilling page in the history 
of commerce. — Thoreau. 

2. Explain the use of the auxiliary (shall, should, or vjill, 
would) in each subordinate clause. 

1. If I had to choose, there are one or two persons, and but one or 
two, that I should like to have been better than Pope. — Hazlitt. 
2. I ensconced myself in the hollow, to hide until our expected visitors 
should arrive. 3. I wish you would go down with me to Newstead. 
4. It is necessary that at some time or other we should see things as 
they really are. — Reynolds. 5. There was one heart whose anguish 
it would be impossible to describe. 6. Many things which would have 
formed a curious record have since occurred. 7. There is nothing that 
they would not do for her. 8. It was fit that he should have a stately 
palace. 9. I am so sorry you should have heard this sad story. 

10. I think I shall come out at Exeter Hall. 11. You know all I 
would say. 12. If you would take a chop with me on Tuesday or Wed- 
nesday, I could tell you more in two minutes than in twenty letters. 

13. I thought I should have been happy with my tenants, because I could 
be insolent to them without their being insolent to me. 14. What is so 
unusual in you is that your knowledge of certain things should be com- 
bined with your ignorance of certain other things. 15. There is no living 
writer whose approbation I should feel so proud to earn. 16. Although 
he will sufficiently enlist your sympathy on his own behalf, I am sure 
that you will not be the less interested in him because I am. 

17. I could tell you some good news, had I not promised the Cardinal 
that he should communicate it to you himself. 18. I met H. Coote, 
and thought he would invite me, but he did not. 19. I believe it will 
be worth three hundred pounds a year. 20. I believe I shall lose credit 
with you by not coming over at the beginning of April. 21. The Duke 
and I were settling when Mr. Secretary and I should dine with him. 
22. I know not whether the ladies in Ireland will like her. 23. I doubt 
whether peace will be made in three weeks. 24. I wonder where we 
shall spend the holidays. 25. Promise me that you will sleep no longer 
in that wood. 26. I promised that I would not tell him your name. 



188 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 34 

(§§ 301-314, pp. 101-104) 

1. Point out each infinitive and explain its construction as 
-"noun, as complementary infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as 
modifier of a noun or an adjective, or as part of a verb-phrase 
■(with an auxiliary). Mention its modifiers or object. 

1. I now proceed to the pamphlet which I intend to consider. 1 2. It 
is difficult to adjust opposite claims to the satisfaction of all parties. 
3. I rose in horror to gaze upon the ruins we might have caused. 4. The 
elderly, respectable seaman, withdrawing his gaze from that multitude 
of spars, gave me a glance to make sure of our fellowship in the craft 
and mystery of the sea. 5. My first care was to deliver your letter of 
recommendation to our cousin. 6. My health and spirits seem to be 
mending daily. 7. You know I have nothing in my own power — all I 
can do is to speak to my uncle for him. 8. The order to attack reached 
us shortly before dawn. 

9. To soften the obdurate, to convince the mistaken, to mollify the 
resentful, are worthy of a statesman. — Johnson. 10. The water began 
to gurgle round me, and to lap upon the pebbles. 11. The famous Prince 
of Savoy came to visit our commander. 12. He resolved to weigh anchor 
that very night. 13. We dared not speak to each other. 14. John 
touched his hat, and set off to obey his master's orders. 15. It is the 
iron rule in our day to require an object and a purpose in life. — Haw- 
thorne. 16. To have performed so much evinces on the part of Heyne 
no little mastership in the great art of husbanding time. — Carlyle. 
17. Christian, because of the burden that was on his back, began to 
sink in the mire. 18. He was surprised to see any human being in this 
lonely and unfrequented place. 19. He determined to retire from 
the regiment. 

2. Write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject, 
as predicate nominative, as appositive, as the object of a prepo- 
sition, as an adjective ; a complementary infinitive ; an infini- 
tive of purpose ; an infinitive used with shall, with will, with 
must. Note any modifiers or objects. 

1 This infinitive may be parsed as follows : — To consider is the present 
active infinitive of the regular transitive verb consider, — principal parts, 
consider, considered, considered. It is a complementary infinitive depending 
on the verb intend. 



INFINITIVE CLAUSES 189 

EXERCISE 35 

(§§ 315-319, pp. 104-106) 

1. Point out each infinitive clause. Mention the verb of 
which it is the object. Find the subject of each infinitive. 
When it is possible, substitute a that-clause for the infinitive 
clause. 

1. This Green Arbor Court I found to be a small square. 2. I wish 
you to tell rne the nature of your perplexity. 3. I know that nothing 
will induce her to ask you to attend. 4. She took her seat with suffi- 
cient dignity, and in an inaudible voice directed the Commons to be 
summoned. 5. Many of them believed that the French were instigating 
the Indians to attack and cut them off. 6. I discovered it at once to be 
a piece of very thin parchment. 7. Heyne declares it to be still a mystery 
to him how he could stand all this. 

8. Through a crevice in the log the boys looked after the Indians and 
saw them disappear in the woods (§ 313). 9. His language was all that 
he desired it to be, if it conveyed his meaning to the audience. 10. He 
supposes all to be right that was done by Pope and Theobald. 11. Want 
of money had induced the king to convoke his parliament. 12. He ad- 
vised Bacon to plead guilty. 13. I beseech your lordships to be merci- 
ful. 14. The governor possessed a good library and permitted Clive to 
have free access to it. 15. The wisest among his councillors advised 
him to put himself into the hands of the English. Others urged him to 
try the chance of war again. 

2. Write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after 
verbs of wishing, commanding, believing, declaring, perceiving. 

3. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun. 

1. I supposed it to be . [Third person.] 

2. She thought the tramp to be . [First person.] 

3. I believed the stowaway to be . [Third person.] 

4. We knew the maskers to be . [Third person.] 

5. They supposed the three men to be . [First person.] 

6. They supposed that the three men were . [First person.] 

4. Fill each blank with who or whom. 

1. The man I believe to be best fitted for the position is Walton. 

2. The man , I believe, is best fitted for the position is Walton. 

3. I handed the letter to a youth I took to be your brother. 

4. It was Robert I thought to be in the wrong. 



190 EXEKCISES 

EXERCISE 36 
(§§ 320-334, pp. 106-109) 

1. Point out all the participles, present and past, and tell what 
substantive each modifies. Mention such as are used as pure 
adjectives. Mention any modifiers or objects of participles. 

1. Wearied with the long detention in a gloomy hotel, I walked out 
about eleven o'clock at night for the sake of fresh air. 1 2. He saw at a 
distance the lordly Hudson, far, far below him, moving on its silent but 
majestic course, with the reflection of a purple cloud, or the sail of a lag- 
ging bark, here and there sleeping on its glassy bosom, and at last losing 
itself in the blue highlands. — Irving. 3. The result was that the Non- 
conformists remained excluded from office in the state. 4. Prior seemed 
to have no fatigue remaining from his journey. 5. I found the place 
thronged with people who had all the appearance of ruffians. — Borrow. 
6. The position was unpleasantly exposed. 7. Two cavaliers rode up 
briskly to the chaise, commanding the coachman to stop. 8. Oliver 
looked very worn and shadowy from sickness. 

9. Her eyes were large, blue, wondering eyes, looking straight at you. 
10. Sounds of gruff voices practising vocal music invade the evening's 
silence. 11. I felt tongue-tied, embarrassed. 12. They had seen their 
gods trampled in the dust, their altars broken, their dwellings burned, 
their warriors falling on all sides. — Prescott. 13. Generally speaking, 
the times which afford most plentiful matter for story are those wherein 
a man should least choose to live. — Swift. 14. It was by mere chance 
that, coming by the door and seeing the crowd, I asked what the matter 
was. 15. He took the fifty pounds for himself and put it in his pocket, 
wrapping it in paper. 16. Being flushed with our success, we were not 
so vigilant. 

2. Write sentences containing the past participles of six 
regular verbs ; of six irregular verbs. 

3. Write sentences containing a participle used as a pure 
adjective ; a participle used as a predicate adjective ; a parti- 
ciple modified adverbially ; a participle taking an object. 

4. Write ten sentences each containing a perfect (or phrasal 
past) participle. Substitute for each a clause with ivhen. 

1 Wearied may be parsed as follows : — Wearied is the past participle of 
the regular transitive verb weary, —principal parts, weary, wearied, wearied. 
It belongs to the pronoun I. 



PARTICIPLES 191 

EXERCISE 37 

(§§335-337,. pp. 109-110) 

Explain all examples of the nominative absolute. Substitute 
a modifying clause in each sentence. 

1. The house being small, my apartment was divided from Prior's by 
a thin wainscot. 2. The vessel being repaired, we again embarked, and 
in two days arrived in safety at Cadiz. — Borrow. 3. The subjects 
being so various, no single passage can in all respects be a specimen of 
the book at large. 4. This done, my companion and I proceeded to 
deliberate on our future course. 5. The campaign began very early, our 
troops marching out of their quarters before the winter was over. 

6. The candle stood on the counter, its flame solemnly wagging in a 
draught. 7. As for the rest of my infancy, there being nothing in it 
remarkable, I shall pass it over in silence. 8. The revolution com- 
pleted, the double government dissolved, the Company installed in the 
full sovereignty of Bengal, Hastings had no motive to treat the late 
ministers with rigor. — Macaulay. 

EXERCISE 38 

(§§ 338-344, pp. 110-112) 

1. Point out the present participles, and also the verbal 
nouns in -ing (participial nouns). Show the difference. Men- 
tion any modifiers or complements used with either. 

1. Sometimes we sat on the wet beach and watched the beach birds, 
sandpipers and others, trotting along close to each wave, and waiting 
for the sea to cast up their breakfast. — Thoreau. 2. A vast deal of 
bantering, criticising of countenances, of mutual accusation and retort 
took place. 3. The progress of agriculture has led to the draining of 
marshes, the felling of forests, and the transformation of heaths and 
wastes into arable land. 4. The browsing camels' bells are tinkling. 
5. Cortes, politely waving his hand, returned to his vessel. 6. He per- 
ceived a strange figure slowly toiling up the rocks. 

7. A little sprig of ivy may be seen creeping up the side of the low 
wall and clinging fast with its many feet to the rough surface. 8. A good 
many of them have certainly abstained from voting. 9. Heyne had 
set his heart on attaining knowledge. 10. He seemed to be busied 
in breaking an egg with delicate precision. 11. The officers, smartly 
dressed, are at the gangway, handing the passengers up the side and 
hurrying the men. 12. I paused, and felt my old panic returning. 



192 EXERCISES 

2. Write sentences in which (1) a verbal noun and (2) a 
present participle are formed from — 

write, shoot, dispute, beg, motor, coast, argue, fish, drink, borrow, 
scold, fence, fight, steal, hear, growl, wrestle, struggle, bark, cry, pass, 
squeak, move, gesticulate, laugh, mow, race, wash, escape, give, send. 

3. Whenever it is possible, substitute either a noun or an 
infinitive for each verbal noun in your sentences. 

4. Select three of these verbal nouns, and write other sen- 
tences in which each is used (1) as a subject, (2) with a direct 
and an indirect object, (3) with an adjective modifier, (4) with 
an adverbial modifier. 



EXERCISE 39 

(§§ 346-362, pp. 113-117) 

1. Point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions. 

In parsing a preposition, tell (1) the object, and (2) the word 
to which the preposition shows the relation of the object. 

In parsing a conjunction, indicate the words or groups of 
words which it connects, tell whether it is coordinate or sub- 
ordinate, and mention its correlative (§ 359) if it has one. 

1. Merrily the fountain plashed and plashed, until the dimples, merg- 
ing into one another, swelled into a general smile that covered the 
whole surface of the basin. — Dickens. 2. Among boys there are laws 
of honor and chivalrous codes, not written or formally taught, but intui- 
tively understood by all, and invariably acted upon by the loyal and the 
true. — Meredith. 3. Wisdom is not banished from their poor hearts, 
nor the balm of natural feeling. — Carlyle. 4. Providence furnishes 
materials, but expects we should work them up for ourselves. — Addison. 
5. He not only did not speak, but did not turn his eye upon her. 

6. Rich are the sea-gods: — who gives gifts but they? — Emerson. 
7. Who has ever been able to define the exact boundary between cour- 
age and rashness ? 8. But whether St. Mark was first bishop of Aquileia 
or not, St. Theodore was the first patron of the city. 9. Long ago, in 
speaking of Homer, I said that the noble and profound application of 
ideas to life is the most essential part of poetic greatness. — Arnold. 
10. She asked if it had not been tmblished some time back. 



CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 193 

2. Write sentences in which the following words are used 

as indicated : — 

for (preposition, conjunction), then (conjunction, adverb), notwithstand- 
ing (preposition, conjunction), since (preposition, adverb, relative adverb), 
until (preposition, relative adverb), as (conjunction, relative pronoun, rela- 
tive adverb), that (conjunction, relative pronoun, demonstrative adjective, 
demonstrative pronoun), but (preposition, conjunction), 

3. Construct sentences containing either and or, neither 
and no?', whether and or, not only and but also, both and and, 
though, if, because. 

4. Construct six sentences containing coordinate conjunc- 
tions ; six containing subordinate conjunctions ; six containing 
relative adverbs. 

EXERCISE 40 

(§§ 363-365, p. 118) 

Point out all interjections, all other parts of speech used 
here in exclamation, and all exclamatory phrases. 

1. Awake ! what ho, Brabantio ! thieves ! thieves ! thieves ! — Shak- 
spere. 2. Woe to the hand that shed this costly blood ! 3. poor 
Orlando ! thou art overthrown. 4. Hail, Caesar, and my lord ! hail, 
most dear Caesar ! 5. Up ! up ! my friend, and quit your books. 

6. Alas ! alas ! there have six of them gone in these last few years. 

7. But hark ! what nearer war-drum shakes the glade ? 8. rf Heaven ! " 
he cried, ff my bleeding country save ! " 

9. Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! 10. Huntsman, rest ! thy chase is done. 
11. Where didst thou see her ? O unhappy girl ! 12. Whew ! a plague 
upon you all ! 13. Soft ! who are you ? 14. Crack ! crack ! the glass- 
coach rattles. 15. What ! was Mr. Slope there too ? 16. Poh ! you have 
seen nothing. 17. Pshaw, 'tis from Sir Andrew Fountaine. 18. Hark! 
hark ! I hear yon whistling shroud. 

EXERCISE 41 

(§§ 366-380, pp. 119-121) 

1. Construct ten sentences in which the simple subject (noun 
or pronoun) is modified by an adjective clause ; ten in which 
the simple predicate (verb) is modified by an adverbial clause. 



194 EXEECISES 

2. Construct five sentences, each containing a noun (or 
subs tan tire) clause used as subject; as object of a verb or 
preposition; in apposition; as predicate nominative. 

EXERCISE 42 

(§§381-389, pp. 122-123) 

1. Tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses 
place, time, cause, or concession. Is the clause adjective or 
adverbial ? What introduces it ? What does it modify ? 

1. I know your gentle nature will sympathize with me, though your 
prudence may condemn me. 2. Before we knew very well what was 
coming, all the sails we had set had burst. 3. Though the prospect was 
so extensive, and the country for the most part destitute of trees, a 
house was rarely visible. 4. I am the more at ease in Sir Roger's family 
because it consists of sober and staid persons. 5. When we arrived upon 
the verge of his estate, we stopped at a little inn to rest ourselves and 
our horses. 6. Though he had been sorely buffeted about the world, he 
was satisfied that the world, in itself, was good and beautiful. — Irving. 
7. About half a mile from the southern wall is a stone fountain, where 
the muleteers are accustomed to water their horses. 

8. As I was yesterday riding out in the fields with my friend Sir Roger, 
we saw at a little distance from us a troop of gypsies. 9. I instinctively 
drew back my head under the tarpaulins, where I could neither see nor 
be seen. 10. When the Duke of Norfolk came to Norwich, he was 
greeted like a king returning to his capital. 11. Our opponents never 
had a shadow of chance in their favor, though they fought with the 
most foolhardy valor. 12. Everything told of the sea, even when we 
did not see its waste or hear its roar. — Thoreau. 13. It is useless to 
go back to Limmeridge till there is an absolute necessity for our return. 

14. Where thou diest I will die, and there will I be buried. 15. There 
is a belt of turf along the side of Aros Bay where walking is easy ; and 
it was along this that I silently followed my silent kinsman. 16. Al- 
though the Spaniards on duty could see nothing, they distinctly heard 
the sound of many oars in the water. 

2. Illustrate clauses of place, time, cause, and concession by 
constructing twenty sentences, five for each. 

3. Tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial. What 
does each modify ? 



CLAUSES OF PURPOSE, ETC. 195 

EXERCISE 43 
(§§ 391-397, pp. 124-125) 
1. Point out the clauses of purpose and those of result. 

1. He gazed so long that his eyes were dazzled. 2. The whole coast 
is so free from rocks that we saw but one or two for more than twenty- 
miles. 3. In this plight, therefore, he went home, and refrained himself 
as long as he could, that his wife and children should ^not perceive his 
distress. — Bunyan. 4. He was a tall, dingy man, in whom length was 
so predominant over breadth that he might almost have been borrowed 
for a foundry poker. — Coleridge. 5. Love not sleep, lest thou come to 
poverty. 6. Let us have the agreement in writing, in order that there 
may be no mistake. 7. The speech he made was so little to the purpose 
that I shall not trouble my readers with an account of it. 

2. Write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose ; 
of result ; an infinitive clause expressing purpose. 

3. Write ten sentences in which the infinitive (without a 
subject) expresses purpose. 

EXERCISE 44 
(§§ 398-413, pp. 125-129) 
1. Explain each conditional clause. 

1. If I had been aware Mr. Mapletoft was in town, I should have re- 
turned him the two guineas I have of his. — Gray. 2. I cannot dis- 
charge the part of a friend, if I omit to let you know. 3. Had I chosen 
for myself, it is impossible I could have fixed upon a place so agreeable. 
4. If you are for a cool argument upon that subject, I am ready to 
accept your challenge. 5. If I had been at home, I would have given 
him something. . , 

6. It would be very ungrateful on my part, were I not to confess my 
great obligations to Galiano. 7. Suppose that a man tells you that he 
saw a person strike another and kill him : that 's testimonial evidence 
of the fact of murder. 8. If you took the jewels, I hope you buried 
them. 9. Should this venture fail, I will go back to Oxford. 10. You 
had spared me many a bitter night, had you told me sooner. 11. A surly 
mastiff will perhaps bear to be stroked, though he will growl under that 
operation ; but if you touch him roughly, he will bite. 12. Could we 
teach taste or genius by rules, they would no longer be taste or genius. 
— Reynolds. 13. If friends he had, he bade adieu to none. 



196 EXERCISES 

14. If I were to go to one place, I should have to go everywhere. 
15. If ever it is in my power to befriend you, I am ready. 16. If I had 
had my bamboo, I should certainly have laid it across his shoulders. 
17. He shall never be insulted under my roof, if I can prevent it. 

2. Write twenty sentences, each containing a conditional 
clause. Tell whether each condition refers to present, past, 
or future time. Which of them are contrary to fact? 

EXERCISE 45 
(§§ 414-416, pp. 129-130) 

1. Point out the clauses of comparison and explain such 
forms of verbs or pronouns as may require comment. 

1. The divinity student looked as if he would like to question my 
Latin. — Holmes. 2. I have been through as many hardships as Ulysses. 
3. Sea-air ripens friendship quicker than the hotbed of a city. — 
Trelawny. 4. Addison wrote his papers as gaily as if he were going 
out for a holiday. — Thackeray. 5. The horse plods along at a footpace, 
as if there were no such thing as business in the world. 

6. I felt as though I should faint, and reached out to the rail for 
support. 7. The architecture of a nation is great only when it is as 
universal and as established as its language ; and when provincial dif- 
ferences of style are nothing more than so many dialects. — Kuskin. 
8. The autumn wind wandered among the branches, whirling away the 
leaves from all except the pine trees, and moaning as if it lamented the 
desolation of which it was the instrument. — Hawthorne. 9. We are 
glad that so able a writer as Mr. Hill has taken up the cudgels. 

2. Write ten sentences containing as if with a subjunctive. 

3. Insert personal pronouns of the first or third person. 

1. William can row better than . 

2. You are abler than . 

3. Do you trust him more than ? 

4. Dunbar is less hasty than . 

5. Is Alice quicker than ? 

6. Stedman is more generally liked than . 

7. You have had as much experience as , 

8. You have had less experience than — — . 

9. John is as clever as - — . 



INDIEECT DISCOURSE 197 

EXERCISE 46 

(§§ 417-422, pp. 130-131) 

1. Change the direct statements to indirect, prefixing He 
said, with the proper changes in person and tense. Thus, — 

I will do what I can. 

He said that he would do what he could. 

1. The drawbridge is still to be seen, but the moat is now dry. 2. The 
chief riches of Ireland consisted in cattle. 3. We took the longest road, 
winch lies through Savoy. 4. 'T is near twelve, and so I '11 answer your 
letter. 5. I dined privately with a friend to-day. 6. The Duke of Cam- 
bridge is staying in this house. 7. This is the first fine day we have had. 
8. The people are perfectly kind and agreeable. 9. I was more affected 
than you can easily believe by the sight of your gift. 10. Time is money. 
11. I have been packing up some books in a great box I have bought. 

2. Change into a direct statement each clause that is in 
the indirect discourse. Mention the construction of the clause 
(as subject, object, etc.). 

1. The report went abroad that the missing ship had been captured 
by the French. 2. I confess that I felt somewhat nettled at this rude- 
ness. 3. I now perceived that the dog had shrunk into an angle of the 
wall. 4. I found that our words froze in the air before they could reac 
the ears of the person to whom they were spoken. 5. I have nothing to 
say in particular on the subject of Homer, except that I am daily 
advancing in the work. — Cowper. 6. It can scarcely be alleged that 
the public was altogether unprepared for the catastrophe. 

7. Marion informed her that Margaret had replied to her inquiry, 
and had promised to come if she could. 8. To Mr. Lorry, the Doctor 
communicated under an injunction of secrecy on which he had no need 
to dwell, that the crowd had taken him through a scene of carnage to 
the prison of La Force. 9. The gypsy told him that he was a bachelor, 
but would not be so long. 10. That wonder is the effect of ignorance, 
has often been observed. 11. His enemies have never denied that he 
had a fearless and manly spirit ; and his friends must acknowledge that 
his estimate of himself was extravagantly high, that his temper was 
irritable, that his deportment was often rude and petulant, aud that his 
hatred was of intense bitterness and long duration. — Macaulay. 

3. Write five sentences in which indirect discourse is ex- 
pressed by an infinitive clause (§ 422). 



198 EXEECISES 

EXERCISE 47 
(§ 423, p. 132) 

1. Write five sentences illustrating each of the three passive 
constructions in § 423. Change each of your sentences to one 
of the other constructions, if possible. 

2. Write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the 
indirect discourse is the subject of a passive verb. 

EXERCISE 48 

(§ 425, p. 132) 

1. Explain the use of shall, should, will, or would in each 
instance. Change the indirect discourse to the direct. 

1. I think you will not be surprised at my persisting in my intention 
of going abroad. 2. My sister Mary remarked that we should all be glad 
to see him. 3. I felt that you would be deeply disappointed. 4. The 
Duchess said that there was no person in whom she should have more 
confidence as a son-in-law. 5. They say the Duke will make the Duchess 
leave the Queen out of spite. 6. He says that he will risk part of the 
expense with the publisher. 

7. I shall take another opportunity to observe that a person of an 
absolute and consummate virtue should never be introduced in tragedy. 
— Addison. 8. Colonel Masham and Colonel Hill tell me my request 
is reasonable, and they will second it heartily. 9. I think I should 
shake hands with thee if I met thee. 10. Morton says that he shall 
expect us on Monday. 11. Holguin assured him that his wishes should 
be respected. 12. I declare I will not dance. 13. He assured her that 
his joy in returning would be great. 

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary {shall or should, 
or will or would). 

1. I was afraid that we be late. 

2. I promise that he not come to any harm. 

3. Kichard said that he telegraph you. 

4. The rumor is that I be made president of the club. 

5. I told Maxwell that I hoped he win. 

6. Father insists that I fail. 

7. I urged that Stearns go in my place. (See § 295.) 

8. I believe that Stearns go. 



INDIEECT QUESTIONS 199 

9. He begged that we help him. 

10. Austin would think that I accept the position. 

11. Jennings hopes that he not have to give up. 

12. I maintain that we be sorry for this. 

13. I told him that I not have thought it possible. 

14. Tell your uncle that I send him my address. 

3. Change the indirect statements in the sentences which 
you have just made to direct statements. , 

EXERCISE 49 

(§§ 426-431-, pp. 132-134) 

1. Some, but not all, of the following sentences contain 
indirect questions. Point out these questions and tell what 
introduces them (interrogative pronoun, interrogative adverb, 
subordinate conjunction). Mention the construction of each 
interrogative clause (as subject, object, etc.). 

2. Turn each indirect question into a direct question. 

3. Point out such relative clauses as you find in the sen- 
tences. Are they adjective or adverbial modifiers ? 

1. What the shore was, we knew not. 2. They asked me what I was, 
in Portuguese and in Spanish. 3. I could never fathom how a man 
dares to lift up his voice to preach in a cathedral. — Stevenson. 4. Love 
and Death enter boarding houses without asking the price of board, or 
whether there is room for them. — Holmes. 5. I reported what I had 
seen to our captain. 6. How many have fallen, we know not. 7. I went 
up the hill to see how the shore lay. 8. The man in the cocked hat 
demanded who he was, and what was his name. 

9. A great man is one who affects the minds of his generation. — Dis- 
raeli. 10. Put on a bright face for your customers, and smile pleasantly 
as you hand them what they ask for. 11. In answer to an inquiry why 
she had not gone to take off her things, Clare said she was not hungry. 
12. I think I knew at that moment what it was. 13. The sculptor 
inquired of his go'od friend Tomaso, whether he, too, had noticed the 
shadow which was said to have recently fallen over Donatello's life. 
14. I scarce knew what to call them. 15. The grand concern at present 
was how to get to college at Liverpool. 

16. These things made men augur ill of what was to follow. 17. Vol- 
taire was right in thinking that the energetic and profound treatment 



200 EXEECISES 

of moral ideas is what distinguishes English poetry. 18. I cannot suffi- 
ciently say how proud I am of what you have done. 19. You may 
inquire of me how I like Paris. 20. Come, my lads, let us see what 
shot remains in the locker. 21. When Helen's anxious looks inquired 
of him what had happened at Baymouth, and whether her darling 
project was fulfilled, Pen, in a gay tone, told of the calamity which had 
befallen. — Thackeray. 

4. Write sentences containing indirect questions introduced 
by who, which, what, when, how, why, whether, if. 

5. Fill the blanks with who or zvhom. Tell, in each sentence, 
whether who or ivhom is an interrogative or a relative pronoun. 



1. Tell me you are. 

2. Tell me you asked. 

3. I wonder it was that I saw. 

4. I saw the boy found the watch. 

5. James has discovered the owner is. 

6. We suspected you were. 

7. They were in doubt to invite. 

8. Tom understands to inquire for. 

9. I know the man you wish to see. 

10. I know you ought to consult. 

11. I have learned wrote that letter. 

6. Turn all the indirect questions which you have just 
written into direct questions. 

7. Construct sentences in which each of the verbs (or verb- 
phrases) is followed by an indirect question : — 

asked, tell, inquire, is learning, see, might discover, had heard, have 
found, doubt, have perceived, is thinking, wonders, knew, was told, 
understands, to comprehend, is, could ascertain, has reported, will 
announce. 

EXERCISE 50 

(§ 432, p. 134) 

1. Turn each indirect question into the direct form. Ex- 
plain the use of shall, should, will, would. 

1. His mother wonders why he should still wish to provoke the dan- 
gers of the deep. 2. I am told that you are eager to know what I will 



INDIRECT QUESTIONS 201 

do for the workingman. 3. I was wondering what I should do to meet 
the imperative necessity for earning my own bread. 4. It is not easy 
to see why he should have been so implacable. 5. This is all I know 
of Sir Percival's friend. I wonder if he will ever come to England. 
I wonder if I shall like him. 

6. Though many years have elapsed since I trod the drowsy shades 
of Sleepy Hollow, yet I question whether I should not still find the same 
trees and the same families vegetating in its sheltered bosom. 7. I can- 
not tell you how much pleasure I should derive from the receipt of a 
letter from you. 8. I very much doubted whether the general subject 
would not be objectionable to the government. 9. Landseer asked me if 
I would present to you from him the accompanying engraving. 10. He 
is therefore maturely considering how he shall dispose his walks and his 
groves. 11. I sometimes wonder whether I shall miss something when 
my readings are over. 12. What were his powers ? what should be his 
aim ? were often to him, as to all young aspirants, questions infinitely 
perplexing and full of pain. 13. Sir John Jervis asked him [Nelson] if 
he should have any objection to serve under him. 

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (shall, should, 
will , would). Then change each indirect question to the direct 
form. 

1. Ruth asked me if I teach her French. 

2. I wonder whether the enterprise succeed or not. 

3. My brother inquires whether or not we need his services. 

4. I cannot explain why he neglect me. 

5. We wondered if Tom join the glee club. 

6. I should like to know if you make the address. 

7. I wonder if I like that opera. 

8. It is doubtful whether we buy a car or not. 

9. I understand now why he wish to enter the navy. 

10. Tell us if we turn to the right. 



EXERCISE 51 
(§§ 433-434, p. 135) 

1. Mention the substantives that make up the compound 
subjects and the verbs that make up the compound predicates 
in Exercise 4. 

2. See if you can make any of the sentences in Exercise 4 
compound by inserting personal pronouns as subjects. 



202 EXERCISES 

3. Divide each compound sentence in § 471 into the inde- 
pendent coordinate clauses that compose it. 

4. Make each sentence in Exercise 4 complex by inserting 
or adding a subordinate clause. Is your clause adjective or 
adverbial ? What does it modify ? 

5. Divide each complex sentence in Exercises 13 ? 19, 33 (2), 
48-50, into the independent (main) clause and the subordinate 
•clause. 

6. Construct compound or complex sentences, using each of 
the following simple sentences from " Ivanhoe " as one clause. 

1. The sun had now sunk. 2. The knight resolved to trust to the 
sagacity of his horse. 3. A fountain of the purest water trickled out 
of the rock. 4. The path from the wood leads to a morass. 5. The 
Jmight shrugged his shoulders. 6. These are dangerous words. 7. Their 
revels were interrupted. 8. The companions of Gurth bound him with 
a halter. 9. They rode side by side. 10. Offend him not by thy folly. 
11. They had reached the little moonlight glade. 12. Isaac sat in a 
corner of his dungeon. 13. The dust raised by the trampling of so 
many steeds darkened the air. 

EXERCISE 52 

(§§ 436-447, pp. 135-138) 

1. Point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject. 
Substitute for each an adjective phrase ; an adjective clause 
(§ 442). 

1. The fatal decree has gone forth. 2. "Shake hands, nephew," said 
a broad-faced, broad-shouldered gentleman in a scarlet-laced waistcoat. 

3. The dreary dawn peeps at length through shutters and curtains. 

4. That haughty-looking man is my Lord George Sackville. 5. Keason- 
able people know themselves better than is commonly imagined. 6. A 
small footpath ran along the margin of the wood. 7. An unaffected 
behavior is without question a very great charm. 8. Behind the house 
stretched a large garden, where there was plenty of room for cabbages 
as well as roses to grow. 9. His high-crowned gray hat lay on the floor, 
covered with dust. 10. A quick intellect catches ideas from the glance 
of a moment. 11. High thoughts rolled, one after another, upon the 
mind of the warrior. 12. Strange names were over the doors, strange 
faces at the windows. 



MODIFIERS OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 203 

2. Construct sentences, using the following adjective phrases, 
as modifiers of the subject : — 

in the barracks ; across the square ; from our window ; of hoofs ;. 
with a torn cover ; along the river ; of the approaching train ; round 
the corner ; in a heap ; from England ; in the Gothic style ; in the midst, 
of a grove ; in the bloom of youth. 

3. Substitute (if possible) an adjective clause for each 
adjective phrase in the sentences you have just written. 

4. Point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple^ 
subject in Exercise 36. Write ten sentences containing suck 
modifiers (§ 443). 

5. Construct ten sentences similar to 9-11 in § 443 (with, 
infinitives modifying the simple subject). 

6. Write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the 
possessive case used as modifiers of the subject (§ 444). 

7. Write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with 
the subject (§§ 83, 5; 445); five in which a noun clause is. 
thus used (§§ 375, 447). 

EXERCISE 53 

(§§ 448-454, pp. 138-140) 

1. Point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predi- 
cate (verb). Substitute for each an adverbial phrase or clause. 

I. Old Homer wrote admirably for little folk. 2. Certain stars shot 
madly from their spheres. 3. Our troops set forth to-morrow. 4. Within 
his car, aloft, young Bacchus stood. 5. Circle-wise sit they, with bound 
locks. — Rossetti. 6. She waved her hand lightly and smiled. 7. Ridley 
ran downstairs in a high state of indignation. 8. I had not observed him 
closely. 9. I heartily thank you for it and highly esteem it. 10. I like 
the article exceedingly. 

II. I perfectly concur in all you say. 12. I write to you very hastily 
and crudely. 13. He looked hard at me, but said nothing. 14. I do not 
well understand that. 15. Soon she hears the tread of heavy steps. 
16. Mr. Jerome shook his bridle violently. 17. They conversed every 
day long and freely about the state of the shipping and the dockyards. 
18. Afterwards I wandered up among the people, and looked at the sports. 



204 : EXEECISES 

2. Write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modi- 
tied by an infinitive (§§ 314, 450); by an adverbial objective 
or by a phrase containing one (§§ 111, 451) ; by a nominative 
absolute (§§ 336, 452); by an indirect object (§§ 103, 453); 
by a cognate object (§§ 110, 454). 

3. Point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives 
of purpose in Exercise 34, and tell what verb each modifies. 

EXERCISE 54 

(§§ 455-457, pp. 141-143) 

1. Point out the complements and describe each (as direct 
object, predicate nominative, etc.). 

1. This proved a rainy day. 2. He has sent me the address. 3. The 
conversation is sometimes quite literary. 4. The mother lies sleepless 
and praying in her lonely house. 5. "These are fine manners!" cried 
the maid. 6. Rochester House was a magnificent residence on the banks 
of the canal. 7. His forehead was broad and high. 8. I '11 make you 
the queen of Naples. 9. The time seems long. 

10. I '11 not call you tyrant. 11. Indolence undermines the founda- 
tion of every virtue. 12. Madrid is the noisiest city I ever dwelt in. 
13. The most interesting part of my visit to Birmingham was a call I 
made by appointment on Cardinal Newman. 14. He was benignly cour- 
teous. 15. A more gracious old age I never saw. 16. You call me mis- 
believer. 17. We are having the most superb winter weather. 18. Expect 
another package from me ere long. 19. I am rather languid to-day. 
20. There was a noisy crowd everywhere. 

2. Write ten simple sentences, each containing the direct 
object of a verb; a predicate objective; a predicate nominative ; 
.a predicate adjective. 

EXERCISE 55 

(§§ 458-461, pp. 144-145) 

1. Point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences 
called for in Exercise 54, 2. Introduce other modifiers of com- 
plements, if you can without injuring the sentences. 



COMPLEMENTS AND MODIFIERS 205 

2. Write sentences similar to those in § 457, 4, taking care 
to include in each a complement modified. 

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a substantive com- 
plement modified by an adjective clause (§ 457, 1 and 3) ; an 
adjective complement modified by an adverbial clause (§ 457, 4). 
Divide each sentence into the main and the subordinate clause. 

4. Point out all modifiers of complements in Exercises 11, 17. 

EXERCISE 56 

(§§ 462-464, pp. 145-146)- 

1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective 
phrases) modified either by adverbs or by groups of words 
used adverbially. 

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noun 
modified; an appositive modified; an adverbial phrase modified. 

3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or 
adverbial clauses as modifiers of modifiers. 

EXERCISE 57 

(§§ 465-467, p. 147) 

Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is 
an interjection, a vocative (nominative of direct address), an 
exclamatory nominative, or a parenthetical expression. 

1. Thrice-noble Titus, spare my first-born son. 2. I, Catherine, am a 
Douglas born. 3. Poor fellow ! it is time he removed from Pentonville. 
4. I have (alas !) got through all Sir Walter's Scotch novels this winter. 
— FitzGerald. 5. Koll on, grinding wheels of the world. 6. There, I 
say, thou mayest be eased of thy burden. 7. Ay me, poor man, how pale 
and wan he looks ! 8. Thomson's " Seasons," again, looks best (I main- 
tain it) a little torn, and dog's-eared. — Lamb. 9. The lord (for so I 
understood he was) looked at me with an air of surprise. 10. The drama, 
as is well known, had an equally didactic origin. 11. .Well, it was a 
happy time for almost all parties concerned. 12. I sent you, my dear, a 
melancholy letter. 13. Why, sir, I brought you word an hour since. 
14. Ho, there ! fisherman, hold your hand ! 



206 EXERCISES 

15. I had, as I have said before, never been farther afield than Fulham 
or Battersea Rise. 16. It would be time enough, he thought, to mention 
Captain Cleveland's proposal when his consort should arrive. 17. I ad- 
mire — none more admire — the painter's magic skill. 18. Not many 
sounds in life, and I include all urban and all rural sounds, exceed in 
interest a knock at the door. 19. Thou comest, Autumn, heralded by 
the rain. 20. Imlac, in ff Rasselas," says — I forget to whom — rf You 
have convinced me that it is impossible to be a poet." — Cowper. 
21. Hear, lady, yet a parting word. 22. This story, as I hoped it would, 
did move him to a sort of tenderness. — Defoe. 23. In a word, we 
made the capes of Virginia in two-and-thirty days. 24. You do not 
forget, I dare say, that you and Sir Thomas called upon me a very few 
days before I took leave of London. 25. Adieu, my dear; I am never 
happier, I think, than when I am reading your letters. 

EXERCISE 58 

(§§ 468-475, pp. 148-152) 

1. Analyze (as directed in § 468) the simple sentences in 
Exercises 51(6), 52, 54; in §§ 443, 445, 451, 457, 459, 462; 
your own simple sentences in Exercise 54, 2. In analyzing, 
describe each sentence as declarative, interrogative, etc. If 
a, sentence is imperative, supply the subject. If there is an 
independent element, omit it in analysis. 

2. Analyze (as directed in § 470) the compound sentences 
in Exercise 6 ; those in § 471. 

3. Analyze (as in § 472) the complex sentences in Exercises 
13, 19, 33 (2), 42-45 ; in §§ 449, 457, 464. 

4. Analyze the compound and the complex sentences that 
you made in Exercise 51, 6. 

5. Analyze (as in § 478) the compound complex sentences 
in §§476-477,479. 

EXERCISE 59 

(§§ 474-475, p. 152) 

1. Construct ten complex sentences in which the inde- 
pendent (main) clause is compound : as, — " When they saw 
the ship, they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears? 



ANALYSIS 207 

2. Construct ten complex sentences in which two subordi- 
nate clauses are attached to the main clause separately, one 
modifying" the simple subject (noun), the other modifying the 
simple predicate (verb) : as, — w The bridge, which had been 
weakened by the ice, fell with a crash tvhile the locomotive was 
crossing it." ' 

3. Construct ten complex sentences in which the subordi- 
nate clause is compound : as, — 

The guide told us that the river was in flood and that the road was 
impassable. 

Before the battle ivas over and while the result was still in doubt, the 
general ordered a retreat. 

4. Construct ten complex sentences in which there are two 
subordinate clauses, one dependent on the other : as, — 

I met a good-natured old gentleman who was born in the village where 
my parents lived. 

5. Analyze your sentences. 

EXERCISE 60 

(§§ 476-479, pp. 153-154) 

1. Analyze the compound complex sentences in § 479, as 
a review. 

2. Construct ten sentences, each consisting of two independ- 
ent complex clauses ; of one simple and one complex clause. 

EXERCISE 61 

(§§ 480-486, pp. 155-156) 

1. Analyze the sentences in § 481. Explain the ellipses. 

2. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following 
kinds of ellipsis : — (1) the subject of an imperative ; (2) a 
relative pronoun ; (3) the conjunction that ; (4) the copula 
and its subject with while, when, though, if; (5) ellipsis in a 
clause with as or than. 



208 EXERCISES 

EXERCISE 62 

(§§ 470-479, pp. 149-154) 

The following compound, complex, and compound complex 
sentences may be used for study and analysis. 

1. The tree against which they were posted had a dark shadow cast 
upon it by the intervention of an enormous pine that grew between it 
and the fire. 2. When they entered Suffolk, a number of gentry, who 
had been appointed to aid the sheriff, met them. 3. We landed in a 
blink of fine weather ; but we had not been two minutes ashore, before 
the wind freshened into half a gale, and the rain began to patter on our 
shoulders. — Stevenson. 4. I have heard of a man that was angry with 
himself because he was. no taller ; and of a woman that broke her looking- 
glass because it would not show her face to be as young and handsome 
as her next neighbor's was. — Izaak Walton. 5. The sky was clear, 
and a single star shone out sharply. 6. I fear that it will clo no good. 
7. It was some time before I left the churchyard. 

8. In an access of hunger for his good opinion, she bethought herself 
of what she had latterly endeavored to forget. 9. There is likewise a 
kind of barrack, where half a dozen soldiers are stationed. 10. I shall 
therefore be very glad to make you a visit at Strawberry Hill, whenever 
you give me notice of a convenient time. 11. When a man cannot bear 
his own company, there is something wrong. 12. A French author has 
advanced this seeming paradox, — that very few men know how to take 
a walk. — Johnson. 13. It was four o'clock ; the sun was rising; and 
the routed army came pouring into the streets of Bridgewater. 14. I 
reckoned in one day thirteen cascades, the least of which was one hundred 
feet in height. 15. Our good Daniel had none of that confidence which 
usually so unpleasantly characterizes self-taught men. — Southey. 

16. Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. 17. As soon as 
Sir John took his leave, Fox returned to his task ; but he could no longer 
keep his mind upon the problem which had absorbed him an hour earlier. 
18. Whatever thwarts, or puts me out of my way, brings death into my 
mind. — Lamb. 19. It has been the opinion of several learned persons 
that the stars do only incline, and not force, the actions or wills of men. 
20. He was wondering what might be the value of any one man's labor 
for his fellow men. 21. It was in vain that I attempted to appear cheer- 
ful. 22. How things were suffered to go on thus, I cannot guess. 23. It 
was on a blustering autumnal afternoon that Wolf ert made his visit to 
the inn. 24. At length the orchestra, which had been wrestling with a 
composition much beyond its ability, ceased from its labors, and the 
curtain began to rise unsteadily. 



APPENDIX 

LISTS OF VERBS 

In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indis- 
putably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the 
•present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in 
using the forms registered in this list. 1 

A few verbs (marked*) which are seldom or never used in ordinary 
language are included in this list. These have various irregularities. 
A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak. 

Weak verbs are printed in italics. 

For the modal auxiliaries, see page 217. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Partici: 


abide 




abode 


abode 


am (subjunc. 


,be) 


was 


been 


arise 




arose 


arisen 


awake 




awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bear 




bore 


borne, born 


beat 




beat 


beaten 


beget 




begot 


begotten 


begin 




began 


begun 


behold 




beheld 


beheld 



1 The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate 
that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage 
with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take 
much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the 
same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the 
list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be 
no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later 
(pp. 215-217). 

2 Born is used only in the passive sense of " born into the world." 

209 



210 



APPENDIX 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 1 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet 


bet 


bid (command) 


bade 


bidden 


bid (money) 


bid 


bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


bless (see p. 216) 






blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


burn (see p. 216) 






burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


^cleave (split) 2 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cleaved (cloven, adj.) 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow (see p. 217) 






curse (see p. 216) 






cut 


cut 


cut 


dare (see p. 217) 






deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug 


dug 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 



1 The adjective form is bereaved: as, "The bereaved father." 

2 Cleave, " to adhere," has cleaved in both the past tense and the past parti- 
ciple, and also an archaic past form clave. 



LISTS OF VERBS 



211 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


dream (see ] 


p. 216) 






dress (see p, 


, 216) 






drink 




drank 


drunk (drunken, adj.') 


drive 




drove 


driven 


dwell 




dwelt 


dwelt x 


eat 




ate 


eaten 


engrave (see 


i p. 217) 






fall 




fell 


fallen 


feed 




fed 


fed 


feel 




felt 


felt 


fight 




fought 


fought 


find 




found 


found 


flee 




fled 


fled 


fling 




flung 


flung 


fly 




flew 


flown 


forbear 




forbore 


forborne 


forget 




forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 




forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 




froze 


frozen 


freight (see 


p. 217) 






get 




got 


got 1 


gird (see p. 


216) 






give 




gave 


given 


go 




went 


gone 


grave (see p 


». 217) 






grind 




ground 


ground 


grow 




grew 


grown 


hang 




hung, hanged" 1 


hung, hanged 2 


have 




had 


had 


hear 




heard 


heard 


heave 




hove, heaved 3 


hove, heaved 3 


hew 




hewed 


hewn 



1 The archaic participle gotten is used in the compounds begotten and for- 
gotten, and as an adjective (" ill-gotten gains "). Many good speakers also use 
it instead of the past participle got, but got is the accepted modern form. 

2 Hanged is used only of execution by hanging. 

3 Usage varies with the context. We say, " The crew hove the cargo over- 
board," but not " She hove a sigh." 



212 



APPENDIX 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel (see p. 21() 






knit (see p. 216) 






know 


knew 


known 


lade 1 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


learn (see p. 216) 






leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (recline) 2 


lay 


lain 


light 


lighted or lit 8 


lighted or lit 3 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow (see p. 217) 






pay 


paid 


paid 


pen (shnt up) (see p. 216) 






put 


put 


put 


quit (see p. 216) 






read 


read 


read 


*reave 


refty reaved 


reft, reaved 


reeve 


rove 


rove 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 



1 Load has loaded in both the past tense and the past participle. Laden is 
sometimes used as the past participle of load. 

2 Lie, "to tell a falsehood," has lied in both the past tense and the past 
participle. 

3 So both light, "to kindle," and light, "to alight." The verb alight has 
usually alighted in both the past tense and the past participle. 



LISTS OF VERBS 



213 



Present 


Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


ring 




rang 


rung 


rise 




rose 


risen 


*five 




rived 


riven, rived 


run 




ran 


run 


say 




said 


said 


see 




saw 


seen 


seek 




sought 


sought 


*seethe (transitive) 1 


sod, seethed 


seethed (sodden, adj.) 


sell 




sold 


sold 


send 




sent 


sent 


set 




set 


set 


seio (see p 


. 217) 






shake 




shook 


shaken 


shape (see 


p. 217) 






shave 




shaved 


shaved (shaven, adj.) 


shear (see 


p. 217) 






shed 




shed 


shed 


shine 




shone 


shone 


shoe 




shod 


shod 


shoot 




shot 


shot 


show 




showed 


shown 


shred (see 


p. 216) 






shrink 




shrank 


shrunk (shrunken, adj.) 


*shrive 




shrove, shrived 


shriven, shrived 


shut 




shut 


shut 


sing 




sang 


sung 


sink 




sank 


sunk 


sit 




sat 


sat 


slay 




slew 


slain 


sleep 




slept 


slept 


slide 




slid 


slid, slidden 


sling 


1 


slung 


slung 


slink 




slunk 


slunk 


slit 




slit 


slit 


smell (see 


p. 216) 







1 Seethe, intransitive, has usually seethed in both the past tense and the past 
participle. It is in rather common literary use. 



214 





APPENDIX 




Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


sow 


• sowed 


sowed, sown 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


speed (see p. 216) 






spell (see p. 217) 






spend 


spent 


spent 


spill (see p. 217) 






spin 


spun 


spun 


spit 


spit 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spoil (see p. 217) 






spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, staved 


stove, staved 


stay (see p. 217) 






steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stunk 


stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewn 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck (stricken, adj.) l 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


sweat (see p. 217) 






sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 



1 Stricken is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say, 
" The community was stricken with pestilence," — but " The dog was struck 
with a stick." 



LISTS OF VERBS 



215 



Present Tense 

think 

thrive 

throw 

thrust 

tread 

wake 

wax (grow) (see p. 217) 

wear 

weave 

wed (see p. 217) 

weep 

wet 

win 

wind 

wring 

write 



Past Tense 
thought 

throve, thrived 
threw 
thrust 
trod 
woke, waked 

wore 
wove 

wept 

wet 

won 

wound 

wrung 

wrote 



Past Participle 

thought 

thriven, thrived 
thrown 
thrust 
trodden 
woke, leaked 

worn 
woven 

wept 

wet 

won 

wound 

wrung 

written 



Bear, break, drive, get {beget, forget), speak, spin, stink, swear, tear, have 
an archaic past tense in a : bare, brake, drave, gat, spake, etc. 

Beat, beget (forget), bite, break, forsake, hide, ride, shake, speak, weave, 
write, and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like 
those of the past tense. The participles in en, however, are now the ac- 
cepted forms. Chid and trod are common participial forms. 

Begin, drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, often have in poetry a 
u-i orm (begun, sung, etc.) in the past tense as well as in the past participle. 
This form (though good old English) l should be avoided in modern speech. 

Bend, beseech, bet, build, burst, catch, dwell, rend, split, wet, have archaic 
or less usual forms in ed : bended, beseeched, betted, etc. Builded is common 
in the proverbial ff He builded better than he knew." Bursted is common 
as an adjective : " a bursted bubble." 

Bid, ff to command," has sometimes bid in both the past tense and the 
past participle ; bid, ff to offer money," has these forms regularly. 

Blend, leap, lean, have usually blended, leaped, leaned ; but blent, leapt, 
leant are not uncommon. 

Clothe has commonly clothed ; but clad is common in literary use, and 
is regular in the adjectives well-clad, ill-clad (for which ordinary speech 
has substituted well-dressed, badly or poorly dressed). 

1 It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts 
of begin were: present, beginne ; past, began; past plural, begunnon; past 
participle, begunnen. 



216 APPENDIX 

Dive has dived ; but dove (an old form) is common in America. 

Plead has past tense and past participle pleaded. Plead (pronounced pUd) 
is avoided by careful writers and speakers. 

Prove has past tense and past participle proved. The past participle proven 
should be avoided. 

Work has past tense and past participle worked. Wrought in the past tense 
and the past participle is archaic, but is also modern as an adjective (as in 
icrought iron). 

Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms ; 
thus digged, shined, past tense and past participle of dig, shine ; showed, past 
participle of shoio. 

Ate and eaten are preferred to eat (pronounced et). 

Quoth, " said," is an old strong past tense. The compound bequeath has 
bequeathed only. 

Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses sate for sat, trode for trod, spat 
for spit ; also writ for wrote and written, rid for rode and ridden, strewed and 
stroion for strewn. 

II 

The following verbs vary between ed and t (d) in the past 
tense and the past participle. In some of them, this variation 
is a mere difference of spelling. In writing, the ed forms are pre- 
ferred in most cases ; in speaking, the t forms are very common. 



bless 


blessed, blest 1 


burn 


burned, burnt 2 


curse 


cursed, curst 1 


dare 


dared (less commonly, durst) 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dress 


dressed, drest 


gird 


girded, girt 2 


kneel 


kneeled, knelt 2 


knit 


knit, knitted 2 


learn 


learned, learnt 3 


pen (shut up) 


penned, pent 2 


quit 


quitted, quit 2 


shred 


shredded, shred 2 


smell 


smelled, smelt 2 


speed 


sped, speeded 2 



1 The adjectives are usually pronounced blessed, cursed. Compare also the 
adjective accursed. 

2 Both forms are in good use. 

3 Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced learned. 



LISTS OF VERBS 



217 



spell 


spelled, spelt 


spill 


spilled, spilt 1 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 1 


stay 


stayed, staid 


sweat 


sweated, sweat 1 


wed 


wedded (p.p. also wed) 1 



III 

The following verbs have regular ed forms in modern 
prose, but in poetry and the high style sometimes show 
archaic forms. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


crow 


crowed, crew 


crowed, crown 


freight 


freighted 


freighted, fraught (figurative) 


grave 


graved 


graved, graven 


engrave 


engraved 


engraved, engraven 


mow 


mowed 


mowed, mown 


sew 


sewed 


sewed, sewn 


shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


shear 


sheared, shore 


sheared, shorn 


wax (grow) 


waxed 


waxed, waxen 



IV 

The present tense of may, can, shall, is an old strong past. Hence 
the first and third persons singular are alike : — / may, he may. The 
actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms : — might, could, 
should. Must is the weak past tense of an obsolete mot, and is almost 
always used as a present tense (§ 287). 

Dare and owe originally belonged to this class. Owe has become 
a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense ought, which 
is used in a present sense (see § 288) ; dare has in the third person 
dare or dares, and in the past dared, more rarely durst. The archaic 
wot "know," past wist, also belongs to this class. Will is inflected 
like shall, having will in the first and third singular, wilt in the second 
singular, and icould in the past. 



1 Both forms are in good use. 



218 APPENDIX 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 

SINGULAR PLURAL 



1. 


I am. 


We are. 


2. 


Thou art. 


You are. 


3. 


He is. 


They are. 
Past Tense 


1. 


I was. 


We were. 


2. 


Thou wast. 


You were. 


3. 


He was. 


They were. 
Future Tense 


1. 


I shall be. 


We shall be. 


2. 


Thou wilt be. 


You will be. 


3. 


He will be. 


They will be. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. I have been. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. You have been. 

3. He has been. They have been. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. I had been. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. You had been. 

3. He had been. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense 

1. I shall have been. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. They will have been. 



CONJUGATION OF TO BE 



219 



SINGULAR 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If he be. 



SUB J UNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 



If we be. 
If you be. 
If they be. 



1. If I were. 

2. If thou wert. 

3. If he were. 



Past Tense 



If we were. 
If you were. 
If they were. 



Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. If I have been. If we have been. • 

2. If thou have been. If you have been. 

3. If he have been. If they have been. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. If I had been. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. If they had been. 

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing, and PL Be [thou or you]. 
Infinitive. Present, to be ; Perfect, to have been. 
Participles. Present, being ; Past, been ; Perfect, having been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO STRIKE 

ACTIVE VOICE 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 



1. I strike. 

2. Thou strikest. 

3. He strikes. 



We strike. 
You strike. 
They strike. 



220 APPENDIX 

Past Tense 

SINGULAR r PLURAL 

1. I struck. We struck. 

2. Thou struckest. You struck. 

3. He struck. They struck. 

Future Tense 

1. I shall strike. We shall strike. 

2. Thou wilt strike. You will strike. 

3. He will strike. They will strike. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. I have struck. We have struck. 

2. Thou hast struck. You have struck. 

3. He has struck. They have struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. I had struck. We had struck. 

2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck. 

3. He had struck. They had struck. 

Future Perfect Tense 

1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck. 

2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck. 

3. He will have struck. They will have struck. 







SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 






Present Tense 


1. 


If I strike. 


If we strike. 


2. 


If thou strike. 


If you strike. 


3. 


If he strike. 


If they strike. 
Past Tense 


1. 


If I struck. 


If we struck. 


2. 


If thou struck. 


If you struck. 


3. 


If he struck. 


If they struck, 



CONJUGATION OF TO STRIKE 22] 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. If T have struck. If we have struck. 

2. If thou have struck. If you have struck. 

3. If he have struck. If they have struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. If I had struck. If we had struck. 

2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck. 

3. If he had struck. If they had struck. 

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing, and PI. Strike [thou or you]. 
Infinitive. Present, to strike ; Perfect, to have struck. 
Participle. Present, striking ; Past, struck; Perfect, having struck. 

PASSIVE VOICE 
INDICATIVE MOOD . 

Present Tense 

1. I am struck. We are struck. 

2. Thou art struck. You are struck. 

3. He is struck. They are struck. 

Past Tense 

1. I was struck. We were struck. 

2. Thou wast struck. You were struck. 

3. He was struck. They were struck. 

Future Tense 

1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck. 

2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck. 

3. He will be struck. They will be struck. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. I have been struck. We have been struck. 

2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck. 

3. He has been struck. They have been struck. 



222 APPENDIX 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. I had been struck. We had been struck. 

2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck. 

3. He had been struck. They had been struck. 

Future Perfect Tense 

1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck. 

2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck. 

3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense 

1. If I be struck. If we be struck. 

2. If thou be struck. If you be struck. 

3. If he be struck. If they be struck. 

Past Tense 

1. If I were struck. If we were struck. 

2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck. 

3. If he were struck. If they were struck. 

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense 

1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck. 

2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck. 

3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck. 

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense 

1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck. 

2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck. 

3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck. 

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing, and PI. Be [thou or you] 
struck. 

Infinitive. Present, to be struck ; Perfect, to have been struck. 

Participles. Present, being struck ; Past, struck ; Perfect, having 
been struck. 



INDEX 

[References are to pages ; f. signifies et and following page" ; ff. signifies 
" and following pages."] 



A for on (a-Jishing), 112. 

A or an, 57 f. ; distributive, 58. 

Absolute construction, 109 f., 140. 
See Nominative. 

Absolute superlative, 65. 

Absolute use of transitive verbs, 68. 

Abstract nouns, 20 f . 

Accusative, 35. See Objective. 

Action, nouns in -ing, 110 ff. 

Active voice, 79 ff. See Passive. 

Adherent adjective, 56. 

Adjective, 4, 55 ff. ; descriptive and 
definitive (or limiting), 4, 55 ; 
noun as adjective, adjective as 
noun, 8, 55, 57 ; pronominal, 
44 ff., 55; proper and common, 
55 ; attributive (adherent), ap- 
positive, predicate, 56 ; articles, 
57 f . ; comparison, 58 ff., 64 f. ; 
numerals, 65 f. ; participle as, 
109 ; adjective in exclamations, 
118 ; as modifier of subject, 136 ; 
of complement, 144 f. See Adjec- 
tive pronoun, Predicate adjective. 

Adjective clauses, 17 f ., 47 f ., 62 f ., 
119 ; place or time, 122 ; as modi- 
fiers of subject, 136 ; of com- 
plement, 142 f . ; of modifier, 
146 ; as complements, 141 ff. ; 
in analysis, 150 ff. 

Adjective phrases, 13 f. ; compari- 
son of, 65 ; as modifiers of sub- 
ject, 136 ; of complement, 144 ; 
of modifier, 146 ; as comple- 
ments, 143. 

Adjective pronouns, 44 ff. ; demon- 
strative, 44 f. ; indefinite, 45 ff. 

Adjunct accusative, 35. 



Adverb defined, 6 ; as modifier, 
6f., 139, 143 ff.; classification, 
forms, and use, 61 ff . ; relative or 
conjunctive, 62 f. ; interrogative, 
63 ; comparison, 63 ff . ; numeral, 
65 f . ; in exclamations, 118; in 
imperative sentences, 156. 

Adverbial clauses, 17 f., 62 f ., 
119 f. ; place or time, 122; cau- 
sal, 123 ; concessive, 123 ; pur- 
pose or result, 124 f . ; conditional, 
125 ff . ; comparison, degree, man- 
ner, 129 f . ; indirect question, 
134 ; as modifiers of predicate, 
139 ; of complement, 145 ; of 
modifiers, 145 f. 

Adverbial objective, 37 f. ; as modi- 
fier, 139, 145. 

Adverbial phrases, 13 f., 38, 108, 
119 ; numeral, 66 ; as modifiers 
of predicate, 139 f. ; of comple- 
ment, 145; of modifiers, 145 f. 

Advising, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 105. 

Affirmative, 62. 

Affirmative sentences, 2. 

A-Jishing etc., 112. 

After, relative adverb, 63, 119, 122 ; 
preposition, 113. 

Agreement, of predicate nomina- 
tive with subject, 29, 41 ; of ap- 
positive, 30, 38, 41 ; of pronoun 
with antecedent, 40, 46 ; of rela- 
tive with antecedent, 49, 75 ; of 
verb with subject, 70, 73 ff. 

All, 46. 

Alternative conditions, 126.; ques- 
tions, 133. 



223 



224 



INDEX 



Although. See Though. 
Analysis, 135 ff. ; elements of the 
sentence, 135 ff. ; modifiers, 

135 ff. ; modifiers of the subject, 

136 ff . ; of the predicate, 138 ff . ; 
complements, 141 ff. ; modifiers of 
complements, 144 f. ; of modifiers, 
145 f . ; independent elements, 

147 f. ; structure of sentences, 

148 ff. ; analysis, with models, 
148 ff. ; simple sentences, 148 f . ; 
compound, 149 f . ; complex, 
150 ff. ; compound complex, 
153 f. ; elliptical sentences, 155 f. 
See further under these several 
heads. 

Animals, names of, gender, 21 f . ; 
pronouns, 50. 

Another, 46 f . 

Antecedent of pronoun, 4 ; agree- 
ment, 40, 46, 49, 75 ; unexpressed, 
51 ff. ; what, 51 ; compound rela- 
tives, 52 f. 

Anticipation, 92, 99. 

Anticipatory subjunctive, 92 ; shall, 
should, 99. 

Any, anything, etc., 46. 

Appear, with predicate nominative 
or adjective, 56, 68. 

Apposition, 30. See Appositive. 

Appositive, case of, 30, 38, 41 ; in- 
finitive as, 102 f . ; clause as, 120, 
131, 138 ; appositive as modifier, 
138, 144 f . 

Appositive adjective, 56, 138. 

Appositive phrase, 138. 

Articles, 57 f. ; generic, 57 ; re- 
peated, 57 ; distributive, 58 ; 
with verbal noun, 112. 

As, relative pronoun, 48 ; relative 
adverb, 63, 117 ; conjunction, 
117 ; in concession, 123 ; in 
clauses of degree, 130. 

As if, as though, 91, 116, 129, 156 ; 
as to, 113 ; with infinitive, 125. 

Asking, verb of, with two objects, 
35 ; retained object, 84 ; with 
indirect question, 133 f. (cf. 121). 

Assertion, 2, 5. 

Assertive sentence. See Declarative. 



Assumptive clauses, 126. 

Attribute. See Predicate adjec- 
tive, Predicate objective. 

Attributive or adherent adjective, 
56. 

Aught, naught, 46. 

Auxiliary verbs, 5, 67 ; in future, 
76 ff. ; in compound tenses, 78 f. ; 
in passive, 80 ff . ; in progressive 
form, 85, 90 ; in emphatic form, 
86 ; replacing subjunctive, 92 f. ; 
modal auxiliaries in potential 
verb-phrases, 93 ff. 

Be, 5f., 68 f. ; conjugation, 73, 89, 
218f.; auxiliaryof passive, 80 ff. ; 
of progressive form, 85 ; ellipsis 
of, 85, 110, 155 f. ; predicate pro- 
noun after, 105 f . See Predicate 
nominative. 

Become, with predicate nominative 
or adjective, 5f., 56, 68 f. 

Before, preposition, 113 ; relative 
adverb, 63, 119, 122 ; with sub- 
junctive, 92 ; with should, 99. 

Believing, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 105. 

Biblical style. See Solemn. 

Bid, with infinitive, 105. 

Both, pronoun, 45. 

Both . . .and, 13, 115, 117. 

But, coordinate conjunction, 115 ; 
subordinate, 117 ; elliptical con- 
struction, 117. 

But, preposition, 113 ; with infini- 
tive, 103. 

Calling, verbs of, two objects, 35 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 83. 

Can, could, 94 f., 217. 

Capability, 95. 

Cardinal numerals, 65 f . 

Case, 28 ff. ; nominative, 29 f. ; pos- 
sessive or genitive, 30 ff. ; objec- 
tive, 33 ff. ; accusative and dative, 
35 ff. ; of appositives, 30, 38, 41. 
See Pronouns. 

Cause, clauses of, 123 ; nominative 
absolute, 110. 



INDEX 



225 



Choosing, verbs of, two objects, 
35 ; predicate nominative after 
passive, 83. 

Clauses, independent and subordi- 
nate, 14 ff. ; coordinate, 14 f . ; 
as parts of speech, 14 ff., 119 ff. ; 
determinative, 51 ; infinitive, 
104 ff. ; simple, compound, com- 
plex, 115, 152 ff. ; assumptive, 
126 ; combination of, 149 ff. See 
Adjective, Adverbial, Noun, In- 
finitive clause. 

Clauses, subordinate, classified ac- 
cording to meaning, 122 ff . ; place 
and time, 122 ; cause, 123 ; con- 
cession, 123 ; purpose and result, 
124 f . ; conditional, 125 ff. ; con- 
clusional, 125 ff. ; comparison 
and manner, 129 f . ; indirect dis- 
course, 130 ff. ; indirect ques- 
tions, 132 ff. 

Cognate object, 37, 42 ; as modi- 
fier, 140. 

Collective nouns, 20 f. ; verbs with, 
75. 

Color, adjectives of, 62. 

Come, have (or am) come, 78. 

Command, with shall or will, 78, 
88 ; as condition, 126 ; verbs of, 
with infinitive clause, 105 ; with 
noun clause,' 121, 124. See Im- 
perative. 

Common adjectives, 55. 

Common case, 28. 

Common gender, 21. 

Common nouns, 1 9 ff . 

Comparative and superlative, of 
adjectives, 58 ff., 64 f. ; of ad- 
verbs, 63 ff . ; use, 64 f . ; compara- 
tive with the, 63. See Than. 

Comparison, clauses of, 129 f . 

Comparison of adjectives, 58 ff., 
64 f. ; of adverbs, 63 ff. ; use of, 
64 f. 

Complementary infinitive, 104. 

Complementary object, 35. See 
Predicate objective. 

Complements. See Object, Predi- 
cate objective, Predicate nomi- 
native, Predicate adjective. , 



Complements, classified, 141 ff. ; 
direct object, 142 ; predicate ob- 
jective, 142 ; predicate nomina- 
tive, 142 f . ; predicate adjective, 
143. 

Complements, modifiers of, 144 f. 

Complete predicate. See Predicate. 

Complete predication, 141. 

Complete subject. See Subject. 

Complete tenses, 78 ff . 

Complete verbs, 141. 

Complex clauses, 15 f., 152 ff. 

Complex compound. See Com- 
pound complex. 

Complex sentences, 14 ff. ; ana- 
lyzed, 150 f. ; varieties of, 151 f. 

Compound clauses, 115, 152. 

Compound complex sentences, 16, 
153 f . ; analyzed, 153 f . 

Compound conjunctions, 116. 

Compound nouns, 21 f . ; plural, 
25 ; possessive, 32. 

Compound personal pronouns, 
43 f . ; intensive and reflexive, 
43 f . ; relatives, 52 f . 

Compound predicate, 13, 148 f. 

Compound prepositions, 114. 

Compound sentences, 14 ff., 149 f.; 
analyzed, 149 f. 

Compound subject, 13, 148 ; agree- 
ment, 73 f. 

Compound tenses, 78 ff . 

Concern, dative of, 36. 

Concerning, 108, 113. 

Concession, moods in, 91 ; should 
and would in, 92 f ., 99 f . ; clauses 
of, 123. 

Conclusion, or conclusional clause, 
125. 

Conditional clauses and sentences, 
moods in, 91, 127 ff. ; forms and 
meaning, 127 ff. ; classification, 

127 ff. ; past and present, 127 f . ; 
non-committal (neutral) and con- 
trary to fact, 127 f . ; future, 

128 f . ; shall, will, should, would, 
99 f., 128 f. 

Conditional complex, 125 ff . 
Conjugation, 19, 69 ff. ; indicative 
present and past, 69 ff. ; future, 



226 



INDEX 



76 ff. ; complete or compound 
tenses, 78 ff . ; active and passive, 
79 ff. ; progressive, 84 f . ; em- 
phatic, 86 ; negative, 86 ; sub- 
junctive, 89 f. ; potential, 93 f. ; 
tables of, 218 ff. 

Conjunction, defined, 7 ; classifica- 
tion and use, 115 ff. ; coordinate 
or coordinating, 115 f. ; subor- 
dinate or subordinating, 115 ff. ; 
simple and compound, 116 ; ad- 
verb, preposition, and, 116 f.; 
correlative, 117. 

Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns. 
See Relative. 

Considering, 108, 113. 

Construction, 1. 

Contractions : I HI, we HI, 77 ; let's, 
91; mayn't, ought nH, 95; I'd, 
we'd, 98. 

Contrary to fact conditions, 127 f. 

Coordinate clauses, 14 ff., 149 f., 
152. 

Coordinate (coordinating) conjunc- 
tions, 115 f. 

Coordination in sentences. See 
Coordinate. 

Copula. See Be. 

Copulative or linking verbs, 5f., 
56, 68 f . See Be. 

Correlative conjunctions, 117. 

Could. See Can. 

Dare, 217. 

Dative, 35 ff. ; of indirect object, 
35 f . ; of reference or concern, 
36 ; with like, unlike, near, next, 
37. 

Declarative or assertive sentences, 
2. 

Declaring, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 105. See Indirect dis- 
course. 

Declension of nouns, 19, 21 ff. ; of 
personal pronouns, 40 f. ; of self- 
pronouns, 43 ; of demonstratives, 
45 ; of relatives, 48 ; of compound 
relatives, 52 ; of interrogatives, 
53. 

Defective verbs, 217. 



Definite article, 57. 

Definitive or limiting adjectives, 
4, 55. 

Degree, adverbs of, 61 f. ; clauses 
of, 130. See Comparison. 

Demonstrative pronouns and ad- 
jectives, 44 f. 

Dependent. See Subordinate. 

Descriptive adjectives, 4, 55 ; rela- 
tives, 51 ; adjective phrases, 55 ; 
tenses, 84. 

Desiring, verbs of, with infinitive, 
104 ; with noun clause, 121, 
124. 

Determinative clauses, 51. 

Did. See Do. 

Direct address, nominative of , 30 ; 
independent element, 147. 

Direct discourse, 131. 

Direct object. See Object. 

Direct quotations, 130; questions, 
132 f. 

Do, did, in questions, 86 ; in em- 
phatic verb-phrases, 86 ; in im- 
perative, 88. 

Double conditions, 126. 

Doubting, verb of, with indirecu 
question, 133 (cf. 121). 

Each, each other, 45 ff . 

Either, 45 ; either . . . or, 13, 74, 
115, 117. 

Elder, eldest, 59. 

Elements. See Subject, Predicate, 
Modifiers, Complements, Inde- 
pendent. 

Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3, 
41, 50, 88, 90, 101, 110, 116 f., 
118, 121, 126, 130 f., 155 f. 

Elliptical sentences, 155 f. 

Emphasis, superlative of, 65. 

Emphatic verb-phrases, 86 ; im- 
perative, 88. 

Endings, in inflection, 1,19; gender, 
22 f. ; number, 23 ff. ; case, 28 f., 
31 f . ; possessive, 28 f ., 31 f . ; 
comparison, 58 ff., 64 f . ; tense, 
70 ; personal endings, 71 ff. ; 
participles, 107 ; participial 
nouns, 110 f. 



IKDEX 



227 



Errors in speech, 26, 32, 41, 44 ff., 
54, 56, 64, 75 ff., 95 ff ., 98, 102, 
105 f., 108, 112, 114, 130. 

Even if, 116, 123. 

Every, everybody, etc., 46. 

Except, with infinitive, 103. 

Exclamation, nominative in, 30, 
41, 118, 147 ; objective me, 42 ; 
infinitive, 103 ; various parts 
of speech, 118; phrases, 118; 
clauses, 125 ; as independent ele- 
ment, 147. See Interjection. 

Exclamatory sentences, 2, 54 ; 
phrases, 118 ; expressions, 118, 
156. See Exclamation, Inter- 
jection. 

Exercises, 157-208. See Table of 
Contents, v. 

Exhortations, 91. 

Expectation, subjunctive of, 92 ; 
should, 99. 

Expletive. See It, There. 

Extent, possessive of, 30. 

Eact, indicative mood, 87. 

Feel, with predicate adjective, 56 ; 

with infinitive, 103. 
Feminine. See Gender. 
Few, 46. 

Figures, plural of, 25. 
For, conjunction, 115 f. 
For, preposition, 113, 116 ; with 

infinitive clause, 106. 
Foreign plurals, 26. 
Fractional parts, 66. 
Future conditions, 128 f . 
Future perfect tense, 79. 
Future tense, 69, 76 ff. See Shall, 

will. 

Gender, 21 ff. ; of nouns and pro- 
nouns, 21 ; special rules for 
nouns, 22 f . ; of pronouns, 41; 
of relatives, 48 ff. See Personi- 
fication. 

Generally speaking, 108. 

Generic article, 57. 

Genitive. See Possessive. 

Gerund, 111. 

Giving, verbs of, direct and indirect 



object, 35 f . ; retained object, 

83 f. 
Gone, am or have, 78. 
Grammar, nature and principles, 1. 
Granted that, 126. 

Habitual action, 96. 
Had rather, etc., 92. 
Half, 75. 

Have, had, auxiliary, 5 ; in com- 
pound tenses, 78 f., 107. 
He, 40 ; for he or she, 46. 
Hear, with infinitive, 103. 
How, 63, 133. 
However, 115 ; in concessions, 123. 

I'd, we'd, 98. 

If, 116 ; in conditions, 125 ff. ; in 
wishes, 126 ; in indirect ques- 
tions, 133. 

I HI, we'll, 77. 

Imperative mood, 87 f. ; in ex- 
clamations, 118 ; as a condition, 
126. 

Imperative sentences, 2 f ., 87 f . ; 
subject of, 3, 88, 156. 

Impersonal and expletive it, 73. 
See It 

In case that, 116 ; in order that, 
124 ; in order to, 125. 

Incomplete predication, 141 ; verbs, 
141. 

Indefinite article, 57 f . ; pronouns 
and adjectives, 45 ff. ; nouns, 46 ; 
relatives (whoever, etc.), 52 f . 

Independent clauses, 15 f . See 
Clauses. 

Independent elements, 147. 

Independent participles, 108. 

Indicative mood, 87 f . ; variety of 
use, 87 ; in statements and ques- 
tions of fact, 87 ; in commands, 
88 ; in concessions, 91 ; in con- 
ditions, 127 ff. 

Indirect discourse, 130 ff.; tenses 
in, 131 ; passive, 132 ; shall, 
should, will, would, 132. 

Indirect object, 35 f. ; retained 
with passive, 84 ; of participial 
nouns, 111 ; as modifier, 140. 



228 



INDEX 



Indirect questions, 132 ff. ; infini- 
tive in, 134 ; subjunctive in, 134 ; 
shall, should, will, would, 134. 

Indirect quotations, 130 ff. 

Indirectness in statements and 
questions, 130 ff. 

Infinitive, 10 f., 101 ff. ; forms, 
101 f. ; object and modifiers, 102 ; 
uses, 102 ff. ; as noun, 10, 102 f . ; 
as nominative, 102 f . ; as object, 

103 f. ; as modifier, 103 f., 137, 
139, 146 ; with see, hear, feel, 
103 ; complementary, 104 ; of 
purpose, 104, 125 ; predicative, 

104 ff.; in verb-phrases, 11; in 
future, 76 ; in emphatic forms, 
86 ; in potential verb-phrases, 
93 ff. ; with ought, tenses, 95 ; as 
condition, 126 ; in indirect ques- 
tions, 134. 

Infinitive clause, 104 ff. ; as object, 
104 ff. ; as subject or predicate 
nominative, 106 ; predicate pro- 
noun in, 106 ; of purpose, 125 ; 
indirect discourse, 131. 

Infinitive phrase, 137. 

Inflection, 1, 19 ff. ; of nouns, 21 ff. ; 
of pronouns, 40 ff. ; of adjectives, 
58 ff . ; of verbs, 69 ff . ; lists of 
verb-forms, 209 ff . 

-ing, verbal nouns in, 110 ff. See 
Participial nouns. 

Intensive pronouns, 43. 

Interjections defined, 8 ; use, 118 ; 
as independent elements, 147. 

Interrogative adverbs, 63 ; with 
clauses, 121 ; in indirect ques- 
tions, 133 f . ; with infinitive, 134. 

Interrogative pronouns, 53 f. ; as 
adjectives, 54 ; with prepositions, 
114; with clauses, 119, 121; in 
indirect questions, 133 f . ; with 
infinitive, 134. 

Interrogative sentences, 2 ; order 
in, 3 ; do, did in, 86 ; direct and 
indirect questions, 133 f. 

Intransitive verbs, 33 f ., 67 ff. ; 
voice, 83 ; in passive with prep- 
osition, 83. 

Inverted order, 3, 62. 



Irregular verbs, 70 ; participles, 

107; lists, 209 ff. 
Is. See Be. 
It, 40 f. ; as cognate object, 42 ; 

impersonal, 73 ; expletive, 73, 

103, 121, 132. 

Kind, sort, 45. 

Knowing, verbs of, indirect dis- 
course, 131 ; indirect question, 
133 f. 

Language, nature of, 1. 

Less, least, 59, 64. 

Lest, with subjunctive, 92 ; pur- 
pose, 92, 124. 

Let, with infinitive, 105 ; let us, 91. 

Letters, plural of, 25. 

Like, should like, 98. 

Like, with objective (dative), 37. 

Limiting adjectives, 4, 55. 

Linking verbs, 5f., 56, 68 f. See 
Be. 

Look, with predicate adjective, 56. 

Main clause, 14 f. ; analysis, 150 ff. 

Make, with infinitive, 105. 

Making, verbs of, two objects, 35 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 83. 

-man, words ending in, plural of, 
24. 

Manner, adverbs of, 61 ; clauses 
of, 129 f. 

Many, 46. 

Masculine. See Gender. 

May, might, auxiliary, 93 ff. ; re- 
placing subjunctive, 92 ; form, 
217. 

Measure or extent, possessive of, 30. 

Might, auxiliary, 93 ff . ; replacing 
subjunctive, 92 ; might better, 92. 
See May. 

Modal auxiliaries, use and mean- 
ing, 93 ff. 

Modal and non-modal forms, 112. 

Mode. See Mood. 

Models for parsing, analysis, 39, 
54, 60, 66, 112, 137, 147, 148 ff., 
156, 185-190. See Exercises. 



INDEX 



229 



Modifiers, 6 f . ; classified, 135 ff. ; 
of subject, 136 ff. ; adjectives, ad- 
jective phrases, adjective clauses, 
136 ; participles, 137 ; infinitives, 
137 ; possessives, 137 ; apposi- 
tives, 138 ; of predicate, 139 ff. ; 
adverbs, adverbial phrases, ad- 
verbial clauses, 139 ; infinitives, 
139 ; adverbial objectives, 139 ; 
nominative absolute, 140 ; in- 
direct object, 140 ; cognate ob- 
ject, 140. 

Modifiers of complements, 144 f. 

Modifiers of modifiers, 145 f . 

Mood, 86 ff. ; indicative, 87 ; im- 
perative, 87 f . ; subjunctive, 89 ff. ; 
potential, 94. See Indicative, 
Subjunctive, etc. 

More, most, in comparison, 59, 63 ff . 

-most, superlative suffix, 60. 

Motion, verbs of, with have or be, 
78 ; ellipsis, 156. 

Must, auxiliary, 93, 95, 217. 

My, mine, 40, 42. 

Naming, verbs of, two objects, 35 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 83. 

Natural likelihood, 96. 

Naught, 46. 

Near, with objective (dative), 37. 

Necessity, 93, 95. 

Negative sentences, 2, 95 ; neither, 
45, 115, 117 ; none, 45 ; not, 62 ; 
no, 62 ; statements, 86 ; forms of 
verb, 86 ; commands, 88 ; pur- 
pose or result, 124 f . ; condition, 
126. 

Neither, pronoun, 45 ; conjunction, 
with nor, 13, 115, 117 ; number 
with, 74. 

Neuter. See Gender. 

Neutral or non-committal condi- 
tions, 127 f . 

Next, 37, 60, 64. 

Nigh, next, 60, 64. 

No, yes, 62. 

Nominative case, 29 f . ; subject, 29 ; 
predicate, 29, 83 ; direct address 
(vocative), 30 ; in exclamation, 



30 ; in apposition, 30 ; absolute, 
109 f., 140. 

Non-committal or neutral condi- 
tions, 127 f . 

Non-exclamatory sentences, 2. 

Non-modal forms, 112. 

Non-predicative forms of verb, 112. 

None, 45. 

Nor, neither . . . nor, number with, 
74. 

Not, 2, 64. 

Notwitlistanding , preposition or 
conjunction, 113, 117. 

Noun, defined, 3 ; classification, 
19 ff . ; common and proper, 19 ff . ; 
abstract and collective, 20 f. ; 
compound, 21, 25, 32 ; inflection, 
21 ff. ; gender, 21 ff. ; number, 
23 ff. ; person, 28 ; case, 28 ff . ; 
numeral, 65 f . ; verbal (partici- 
pial), 110 ff. See Infinitive. 

Noun (or substantive) clauses, 17, 
119 ff. ; construction, as subject, 
object, etc., 120 f.; purpose and 
result, 124 ; indirect discourse, 
130 ff. ; indirect questions, 132 ff. ; 
as modifiers, 138, 144 ; as com- 
plements, 143. 

Noun-phrases or substantive 
phrases, 13 f. ; possessive of, 32 ; 
verbal noun-phrases, 111. 

Number, a (or the), 75. 

Number of nouns, 23 ff . ; of pro- 
nouns, 40 f., 43, 45, 47, 48, 52; 
of verbs, 70 ff ., 73 ff . ; agree- 
ment in, 40, 46, 49, 70, 73 ff. 

Numerals, 65 f . 

O or oh, .8, 118 ; in wishes, 118. 

Object, of preposition, 7, 33, 113; 
of verb, direct, 33 ff . ; predicate 
objective, 35 ; indirect, 35 f. ; for 
whom, 36 ; cognate, 37 ; retained, 
83 f. ; of infinitive, 102 ; of par- 
ticiple, 109 ; of verbal (particip- 
ial) noun, 111 f . ; infinitive as, 
103 f. ; infinitive clause as, 104 f . ; 
noun-clause as, 120 f ., 124, 131, 
133. See Complements, Modi- 
fiers. 



230 



INDEX 



Object clauses. See Noun clauses. 

Objective attribute, 35. 

Objective case, 33 ff. ; of service, 
36 ; adverbial, 37 f. ; in apposi- 
tion, 38 ; of pronouns, 42 ff., 45, 
48 ff., 52 ff. ; in exclamation, 42 ; 
subject of infinitive, 104 f. (cf. 
42). See Object. 

Objective complement, 35. See 
Predicate objective. 

Obligation or propriety, 93, 95. 

OZ-phrase, 88. 

On condition that, 126. 

One, one's, one's self, 43, 46 f. ; one 
another, 46. 

Or, either . . . or, 13, 115, 117; 
number with or, nor, 74. 

Order. See Inverted. 

Orders, will in, 88. See Command. 

Ordinal numerals, 66. 

Other, another, 45 ff. 

Ought, 95 f . 

Owe, ought, 95 f., 217. 

Own, 43. 

Pains, 74. 

Parenthetical words, phrases, and 
clauses, 147. 

Parsing, models for. See Models. 

Part, portion, 75. 

Participial nouns, 110 ff. ; object of, 
111 ; modifiers of, 111 ; as adjec- 
tives, 111 ; with article, 112. 

Participial phrase, 137. 

Participles, 11, 106 ff . ; present, 
past, perfect (or phrasal past), 
107 f . ; constructions, 108 ff. ; ob- 
ject and modifiers of, 108 f. ; as 
prepositions, 108 ; as adjectives, 
109 ; with nominative absolute, 
109 f. ; as modifiers, 137, 144 f. 

Parts of speech, defined, 3 ff. ; 
same word as different, 8 ff . ; sub- 
stitutes for, 13 ff . (see Phrases, 
Clauses) ; inflection and syntax, 
19 ff. See Noun, Pronoun, etc. 

Passive voice, 79 ff. ; form of, 80 ff. ; 
use of, 82 ff . ; predicate nomina- 
tive with, 83 ; retained object 
with, 83 f. ; in progressive form, 



85 ; in imperative, 88 ; in sub- 
junctive, 90 ; intransitive verbs 
with preposition, 83 ; passive dis- 
tinguished from be with partici- 
ple used as adjective, 109 ; clause 
as retained object, 121 ; indirect 
discourse, 132. 

Past conditions, 127 f . ; non-com- 
mittal or neutral, 127 f. ; con- 
trary to fact, 128. 

Past future and past future per- 
fect tenses, 96. 

Past participle, 79 ff., 107 f. ; as 
predicate adjective, 109 ; phrasal 
past, 107. 

Past perfect tense, 78 f ., 82 ; sub- 
junctive, 89, 128 ; progressive, 
85 ; in conditions, 127 f. ; in in- 
direct discourse, 131. 

Past tense, 69 ff . ; personal endings, < 
71 f . ; passive, 81 ; progressive, 
85 ; emphatic, interrogative, and 
negative, 86 ; subjunctive, 89, 
91 f ., 128 ; were to, 129 ; indicative 
and subjunctive in conditions, 
127 f. ; in indirect discourse, 
131. 

Pending, 108, 114. 

Per, per cent, etc., 114. 

Perceiving, verbs of, with infinitive 
clause, 105 ; indirect discourse, 
131 ; indirect question, 133. 

Perfect (or past) infinitive, 79, 
101 f . ; with ought, 95 ; partici- 
ple, 107. 

Perfect (or present perfect) tense, 
78, 81, 85. 

Permission, 95, 98. 

Person of substantives, 28 ; of pro- 
nouns, 40 f. ; of relatives, 49 ; of 
verbs, 70 ff., 73 f. 

Personal construction, 132. 

Personal endings, 71 f . 

Personal pronouns, 40 ff. ; inflec- 
tion, 40 ff . ; gender and number, 
41 ; case, 41 ff. ; se£/-pronouns, 
43 f. ; as predicate nominative, 
29,41. 

Personification, 20, 22. 

Phrasal past participle, 79, 107. 



IKDEX 



231 



Phrases, 16; kinds of, 13 f. 
(see Noun-phrases, Adjective 
phrases, . Adverbial phrases, 
Verb-phrases) ; as prepositions, 
114; as conjunctions, 116; ex- 
clamatory, 118 ; in analysis, 
136 ff. ; as modifiers of subject, 
136 ; of predicate, 138 f . ; as 
complements, 142 f.; as modi- 
fiers of complements, 144 f . ; of 
other modifiers, 145 f. See Pro- 
gressive, Emphatic, Potential, 
Appositive, Infinitive, Particip- 
ial, Prepositional, Verbal noun- 
phrases. 

Place and time, adverbs of, 61 ff. ; 
clauses of, 122. 

Pluperfect or past perfect tense, 
78 f., 82; subjunctive, 89, 128; 
progressive, 85 ; in conditions, 
127 f . ; in indirect discourse, 131. 

Plural of nouns, 23 ff. ; irregular, 
24 ff . ; of compounds, 25 ; of 
letters, etc., 25 ; of foreign nouns, 
26 ; of proper names and titles, 
26 f . ; of possessive or genitive, 
31 ; of pronouns, 40 ff., 44 ff. ; of 
relatives, 49 ; of verbs, 70 ff. 

Portion, part, 75. 

Positive degree, 58, 63. 

Possessive or genitive case of nouns, 
30 ff . ; use, 30 ; of source, author- 
ship, measure, 30 ; of compounds 
and phrases, 32 ; of personal 
pronouns, 42 ; of indefinite pro- 
nouns, 46 f. ; of relatives, 48, 
50, 52 ; of interrogatives, 53 ; 
possessive nouns modified, 146. 

Possessive modifiers, 137, 144 ff. 

Possessive pronouns and adjectives, 
40 ff. ; my, mine, etc., use of, 42 ; 
one's, 46 f. ; whose, 48, 50, 53. 

Possibility, 93, 95. 

Potential verb-phrases, 93 ff. ; 
mood, 93 ff. 

Pray, prithee, 41. 

Prayers, subjunctive, 90. 

Predicate, 2f.; inverted order, 3, 
62; simple and complete, 12 f., 
135, 148; compound, 13, 148; 



possessive in, 42 ; infinitive as, 
104 ff . ; analysis, 135 ff. ; modi- 
fiers of, 138 ff. ; complements, 
141 ff. See Complements, Modi- 
fiers. 

Predicate adjective, 56, 68 f. ; par- 
ticiple as, 109 ; analysis, 141 ff. ; 
as complement, 143 ; modifiers 
of, 145. 

Predicate nominative, 29, 34 f., 41, 
68 f., 83, 105; of pronouns, 41 ; 
after passive, 83 ; infinitive as, 
102 ; infinitive clause as, 106 ; 
noun clause as, 120, 131, 133 ; in 
analysis, 141 ff. ; as complement, 
141 ff . ; modifiers of, 144 f . 

Predicate objective, 35, 83 ; adjec- 
tive as, 35 ; in analysis, 141 ; as 
complement, 142 ; modified, 144. 

Predicate pronoun after to be, 105 f . 

Predication, complete and incom- 
plete, 141. 

Predicative forms of verb, 112. 

Predicative infinitive, 104 ff . See 
Infinitive clause. 

Preposition, defined, 7 ; list and 
uses, 113 f. ; simple and com- 
pound, 114 ; object of, 7, 113 ; 
with intransitive verb, 83 ; with 
passive, 83 ; phrase used as, 114 ; 
at end of sentence or clause, 
114; participle as, 108; infinitive 
as object of, 103 ; clause as object 
of, 121. 

Prepositional phrases, 14, 113. 

Present conditions, 127 f . ; non- 
committal or neutral, 127 f. ; 
contrary to fact, 128. 

Present infinitive, 101 ; with ought, 
95. 

Present participle, 11, 107 f. ; in 
verb-phrases, 11, 85 ; with nomi- 
native absolute, 109 f . 

Present perfect tense, 78, 81, 85. 

Present tense, 69 ; form, 70 ; per- 
sonal endings, 71 f.; conjugation, 
72 f. ; in future sense, 129; in 
future conditions, 129 ; passive, 
80 ; progressive, 85 ; emphatic, 
interrogative, and negative, 86 ; 



232 



INDEX 



imperative, 88 ; subjunctive, 
89 f . ; indicative and subjunctive 
in conditions, 127, 129 ; partici- 
ple, 11, 85, 107 ff. ; infinitive, 
95, 101. 

Preterite. See Past. 

Preterite-present verbs, 217. 

Principal clause. See Main clause. 

Principal parts, 79 ; lists, 209 ff. 

Prithee, 41. 

Progressive verb-phrases, 84 f. ; in 
subjunctive, 90. 

Prohibition, 88. 

Pronominal adjectives. See Adjec- 
tive pronouns, Demonstrative, 
Indefinite, Relative, Interroga- 
tive. 

Pronoun defined, 3 ; antecedent of, 
4 ; classification, forms, and uses, 
40 ff. ; predicate nominative, 41. 
See Personal, Adjective, Demon- 
strative, Indefinite, Relative, In- 
terrogative, Intensive, Reflexive, 
Reciprocal, Gender. 

Pronoun, predicate, after to be, 105. 

Proper nouns, 19 ff. ; plural, 24, 
26 f. ; possessive, 31 ; adjectives, 
55. 

Propriety, 95. 

Provided (that), 116, 126. 

Purpose, subjunctive and indica- 
tive, 92 ; infinitive of, 104, 125 ; 
clauses of, 124 ; infinitive clause, 
125. 

Questions, 3f. ; shall and will in, 
76 ff. ; should and would in, 96 ff.; 
do, did, 86 ; may, 95 ; as condi- 
tion, 126 ; direct and indirect, 
132 ff. See Interrogative. 

Quotations, direct and indirect, 
130. 

Bather, had rather, 92. 

Reciprocal pronouns, 46. 

Reference, dative of, 36. 

Reflexive pronouns, 43. 

Refusing, verbs of, direct and indi- 
rect object, 35 ; retained object, 
83 f. 



Regular verbs, 70 ; participles, 107. 
Relative adjectives, 53. 
Relative adverbs, 62 f . ; with sub- 
junctive, 92 ; introducing clauses, 

119, 122 f ., 126 ; place and time, 
122 ; concession, 123 ; condition, 
126. 

Relative pronouns, 47 ff. ; forms, 
48 ; gender, 48, 50 ; agreement, 
49 ; case, 49, 106 ; omitted, 50 ; 
descriptive and restrictive (de- 
terminative), 50 f. ; what, 51 f. ; 
compound relatives, 52 f. ; rela- 
tives introducing clauses, 47 f ., 

120, 122 f. ; place and time, 122 ; 
concession, 99, 123 ; condition, 
99 f., 126. 

Relative superlative, 65, 
Restrictive relatives, 50 f . 
Result, clause of, 124 f . ; infinitive, 

125 ; negative, 125 
Retained object, 83 f . ; clause as, 

121. 

Same (the) as, 48. 

Saying. See Telling. 

Secondary object, 35. 

See, with infinitive, 103. 

Seem, with predicate nominative 
or adjective, 6, 56, 68 ; it seems 
that, 132. 

^(/"-pronouns, 43 ff. 

Sentences, 2 ; kinds of, 2f. ; essen- 
tial elements in, 2 ; parts of 
speech in, 3 ff. ; simple and com- 
plete subject and predicate, 12 f . ; 
clauses in, 14 ff . ; simple, com- 
pound, complex, 14 ff. ; com- 
pound complex, 16. 

Sentences, analysis of, 135 ff. ; ele- 
ments and structure, 135 ff. ; 
modifiers of the subject, 136 ff. ; 
of the predicate, 138 ff. ; com- 
plements, 141 ff. ; modifiers of 
complements, 144 f.; of other 
modifiers, 145 f. ; independent 
elements, 147 ; simple sentences, 
148 f . ; compound, 149 f . ; com- 
plex, 150 f.; compound and com- 
plex clauses, 152 ; compound 



INDEX 



233 



complex sentences, 153 f . ; el- 
liptical sentences, 155 f . See 
Models, Subject, Complements, 
Modifiers,- etc. 

Sequence of tenses, 131, 134. 

Service, objective of, 36. 

Several, 46. 

Shall and will, 76 ff. ; in assertions 
and questions, 76 ff. ; in subor- 
dinate clauses, 98 ff. ; indirect 
discourse, 132 ; indirect ques- 
tions, 134 ; forms, 217. See 
Should. 

Should and would, in simple sen- 
tences and independent clauses, 
96 ff. ; in subordinate clauses, 
98 ff. ; in indirect discourse, 
132 ; in indirect questions, 134. 
See Shall. 

Should and would, special senses, 
95 f . ; replacing subjunctive, 
92 f. ; in classes of purpose, 99 ; 
concessions, 99 f. ; in conditional 
sentences, 99 f., 128 f. 

Signs, plural of, 25. 

Simple clauses. See Clauses. 

Simple prepositions, 114 ; conjunc- 
tions, 116. 

Simple sentences, 16 f. ; analyzed, 
148 f . ; elaboration of, 148 f . 
See Sentences. 

Since, adverb, preposition, con- 
junction, 114, 117. 

Singular. See Number. 

Smell, with predicate adjective, 56. 

So as to, 125 ; so that, 124. 

Solemn (or Biblical) style, 41, 66, 
71, 89, 92, 215 f. 

Some, 45 ; somewhat, 46. 

Sort, kind, 45. 

Sound, with predicate adjective, 56. 

Split infinitive, 102. 

Still, yet, adverbs or conjunctions, 
116. 

Strong verbs, 70 ; participles, 107 ; 
list, 209 ff . 

Subject, 2 ; inverted order, 3 ; 
omitted, 3, 41, 88, 155 f. ; simple 
and complete, 12 f. ; compound, 
13, 148; infinitive as, 10, 102; 



clause as, 17, 106, 120, 131 ff., 
151 ; case, 29 ; agreement with 
verb, 70, 73 ff. ; modifiers of, 
136 ff. ; subject of infinitive, 104 f . 
See Predicate nominative. 

Subject and predicate, 2f., 12 f. 
134 ff., 148 ff. 

Subject complement, 29. See Predi- 
cate nominative/ 

Subject substantive, 12. 

Subjunctive mood, 86 f., 89 ff. ; 
forms, 89 f . ; uses, 90 ff. ; in 
wishes, etc., 90 f . ; concessions, 

91 ; conditions, 91, 128 f . ; after 
as if, 91 ; in clauses of ideal 
certainty, 92 ; of purpose or 
expectation (anticipatory), 92 ; 
in indirect questions, 134 ; aux- 
iliaries replacing subjunctive, 

92 f. 

Subordinate clauses, 14 ff., 119 ff. ; 
as parts of speech, 17 f ., 119 ff. ; 
analysis, 135 ff., 150 ff. See 
Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, In- 
dicative, Subjunctive, Infinitive. 

Subordinate clauses, meanings of, 
122 ff. ; place and time, 122 ; 
cause, 123; concession, 123; pur- 
pose and result, 124 f. ; condition, 
125 ff. ; comparison, degree, and 
manner, 129 f. ; indirect dis- 
course, 130 ff. ; indirect ques- 
tions, 132 ff. 

Subordinate (or subordinating) 
conjunctions, 115 ff. 

Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pro- 
noun. 

Substantive phrases and clauses. 
See Noun phrases, Noun clauses. 

Such, 45 ; such as, 48. 

Superlative of emphasis (absolute 
superlative), 65 ; relative super- 
lative, 65. See Comparison. 

Suppose, supposing, 126. 

Syntax, 1, 19 ff. 

Taste, with predicate adjective, 
56. 

Telling, verbs of, direct and in- 
direct object, 35 f. ; retained 



234 



IXDEX 



object, 84 ; object clause, 121 ; 
indirect discourse, 131. 

Tense, 69 ff. See Present, Past, 
Future, Compound tenses. 

Tenses, with ought, 95 ; use in 
conditions, 127 ff. ; in indirect 
discourse, 131 ; in indirect ques- 
tions, 133. 

Terminations. See Endings. 

Than, 63, 116; case after, 130; 
clauses, 130. 

That, conjunction with subordinate 
clause, 18, 100, 104 f., 116, 120 f., 
124, 131 ff. ; in clauses of pur- 
pose, 92, 99, 124 ; result, 124 ; in- 
direct discourse, 131 ff . ; omitted, 
116, 121, 131, 155 f. 

That, demonstrative, 44 f . ; rela- 
tive, 48 ; omitted, 50, 155 f . 

The, article, 57 ; adverb with com- 
parative, 63. 

Then, adverb or conjunction, 116. 

There, 62 ; expletive, 62. 

Thinking, verbs of, two objects, 35 ; 
predicate nominative after pas- 
sive, 83 ; object clause, 121 ; in- 
direct discourse, 131 ; indirect 
question, 133. 

This, these, 44t f . 

Thou, ye, you, 40 f. 

Though, although, 116 ; mood after, 
91. See Concession. 

Till, until, relative adverb, 63 ; 
with subjunctive, 92 ; with 
should, 93, 99 ; preposition, 114. 

Time, adverbs of, 61 ; clauses of, 
122 ; nominative absolute, 110. 

Titles, in plural, 26 f. 

To, with infinitive, 10, 101 f . ; ex- 
pressing purpose, 125 ; to the end 
that, 124. 

Too . . . to, 125. 

Transitive verbs, 33 ff., 67 ff. ; used 
absolutely, 68 ; passive use of, 
83. See Object. 

Unless, 91, 116, 126. 

Unlike, objective (dative) with, 37. 

Until. See Till 

Usage and grammar, 1. 



Verb, 5f. ; classification, 67 ff. ; in- 
flection and syntax, 69 ff . ; tense, 
69 ff . ; agreement, 70 ff. ; person 
and number, 70 ff . ; personal end- 
ings, 71 f. ; future, 76 ff. ; com- 
plete or compound tenses, 78 f. ; 
voice, 79 ff . ; progressive form, 
84 f. ; emphatic, negative, and 
interrogative forms, 86 ; mood, 
86 ff. ; potential verb-phrases 
(modal auxiliaries), 93 ff. ; in- 
finitive, 10 f., 101 ff. ; participles, 
11, 106 ff. ; participial nouns, 
110 ff.; lists of verbs, 209 ff. ; 
tables of conjugation, 218 ff. See 
Predicate, Transitive, Tense, etc. 

Verbal noun in -ing, 110 ff. See 
Participial nouns. 

Verbal noun-phrases, 111. 

Verb-phrases, 5, 14, 67 ; to supply 
inflection, see Future, Complete 
tenses, Passive, Progressive, 
Potential, Subjunctive. 

Vocative (direct address), nomina- 
tive, 30 ; as independent ele- 
ment, 147. 

Voice, 79 ff. See Passive. 

Volition (or will), 77 f ., 97, 100, 134. 



We'd, 98. 

Well, 59, 64. 

We'll, 77. 

Were to, 129. 

What, relative, 51 f. ; double con- 
struction, 51 ff. ; as adjective, 
53 ; interrogative, 53 f ., 133 ; as 
adjective, 54 ; in exclamatory 
sentences, 54 ; interjection, 54. 

Whatever, whatsoever, 52 f . ; in con- 
cession, 123 ; in conditions, 126. 

When, whenever, 63 ; in conditions, 
126. 

Whence, 63. 

Where, wherever, 63. 

Whether, whether . . . or, 13, 116 f., 
126, 133. 

Which, relative, 48 ff. ; gender, 
48 ff. ; as adjective, 53 ; inter- 
rogative, 53 f. ; as adjective, 54. 



INDEX 



235 



Whichever, 52 f . 

While, noun, adverb, conjunction, 
63, 117. 

Whither, $3. 

Who, whose, whom, relative, 47 ff . ; 
gender, 48 ff. ; interrogative, 53 f ., 
114, 133. 

Whoever, whosoever, 52 f. ; in con- 
cession, 123 ; in conditions, 126. 

Why, 63, 133. 

Will, in orders, 88 ; in future, see 
Shall 

Wish, subjunctive in, 90, 92 ; may, 
92, 95 : verbs of, with infinitive 



or infinitive clause, 105 ; with 

object clause, 121, 124 ; O in a 

wish, 90, 118; if, 126. 
Words, nature and use of, 1. 
Wot, wist, 217. 
Would, in wishes, 90 ; habitual 

action, 96 ; would better (rather) ,, 

92. See Should. 

Yes, no, 62. 

Yet, still, adverbs or conjunctions, 

116. 
Yon, yond, yonder, 44. 
You and thou, 41. 



SUPPLEMENT 

By WILLIAM M.. TANNER > 

EXTRACTS FEOM THE COLLEGE ENTRANCE 
REQUIREMENTS FOR STUDY, 1921-1925 

WITH NOTES FOR FURTHER PRACTICE 
IN PARSING AND ANALYSIS 

[The references are to sections of the Grammar] 

I. Lincoln's " Gettysburg Address." 
II. From Macaulay's "Life of Samuel Johnson." 

III. From Webster's "First Bunker Hill Oration." 

IV. From Carlyle's " Essay on Burns." 

V. From Burke's " Speech on Conciliation with America." 

VI. From Washington's "Farewell Address." 

VII. From Arnold's "Wordsworth." 

VIII. Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud." 

IX. From Milton's " II Penseroso." 

X. From Shelley's "To a Skylark." 

XI. Keats's "Ode on a Grecian Urn." 

XII. Browning's " Home Thoughts from Abroad." 

XIII. Browning's "Incident of the French Camp." 

XIV. From Shakspere's "Macbeth." 
XV. From Shakspere's "Hamlet." 

Note to Students. A sentence is the expression of a thought, but before 
it can convey a thought accurately, it must be understood. Likewise, before 
a sentence can be properly analyzed, its meaning must be correctly inter- 
preted. In all your efforts at correct interpretation make use of the following 
important aids : 

1. Read carefully the entire selection at least twice. 

2. Make intelligent use of an unabridged dictionary in order to learn the 
exact meaning of each word that you do not clearly understand. 

3. Determine which sentences are elliptical (§§ 480-486) and supply all 
words that are omitted. 

4. Note each sentence in which inverted order (§§ 7 and 192) occurs, and 
rearrange the sentence in its normal order with respect to all its elements. 

COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY GIXN AND COMPANY 

i 



FEB -9 1922 
©GU653776 



ii SUPPLEMENT 



SPEECH AT THE DEDICATION OF THE NATIONAL 
CEMETERY AT GETTYSBURG 

Abraham Lincoln 

Fourscore and seven years 1 ago 2 onr fathers brought forth on 
this continent a new nation, conceived 3 in liberty, and dedicated 3 
to the proposition that 4 all men are created 6 equal. 6 Now we are 
engaged in a great civil war, testing 7 whether 8 that nation, or any 
nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long 9 endure. We are 
met 10 on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedi- 
cate u a portion of that field as 12 a final resting 13 place 14 for those 
who here gave their lives that 15 that nation might live. It 16 is alto- 
gether fitting 17 and proper that 16 we should 18 do this. But in a larger 
sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow 
this ground. The brave men, living 19 and dead, who struggled here, 
have consecrated it far 20 above our poor power to add 21 or detract. 21 
The world will little 22 note, nor long 22 remember, what 23 we say 
here ; but it can never forget what 23 they did here. It 24 is for us, 
the living, 25 rather to be dedicated 24 here to the unfinished work 
which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It 24 
is rather for us to be here dedicated 24 to the great task remaining 
before us, that 26 from these honored dead 27 we take increased 28 

1 § 111. 2 Ago is an adverb modifying brought. In origin ago is a past 
participle (= agone ; that is, gone, past). 3 § 329. 4 The clause (in indirect 
discourse) is appositive to proposition (§§ 375, 419, 447) . 5 For tense see § 421. 
6 Cf. § 248. 7 Belongs to war (§ 329). 8 Indirect question, object of testing 
(§§ 332, 427-429). » § 190. 10 Perfect (present perfect) tense ; have met is 
more usual (§ 238, 1, note). n § 314, 2. 12 The conjunction as is often used 
as a connective to introduce (1) an appositive, (2) a predicate nominative or 
adjective, (3) a predicate objective. Thus, (1) "William, as agent, took full 
responsibility"; (2) "Caesar was regarded as a tyrant" (or "as tyrannical") ; 
(3) "They chose John as their leader" For further discussion see below, 
p. v, note 8; p. v, note 12; p. xii, note 6; p. xiv, note 9; p. xvi, note 7. In 
origin this use of as involves an ellipsis, but no ellipsis is felt in fact (cf. §486). 
13 § 342. 14 § ioo. 15 § 391, I. Might is the past tense of may (§§ 279, 282- 
283). 16 § 380. 1^ §§ 333, 170, 3. is § 300. i» §§ 333, 170, 2. 20 Adverb 
modifying the adverbial phrase (§§40-41) above our poor power (§462, IV). 
21 § 312. 22 Adverb (§ 190). 23 § 155. 24 § 309. 25 An adjective (originally 
a participle, §333) used as a plural noun (§175). Cf. living in line 11. 
26 § 392. 27 Cf . § 175. 28 § 333. 



LIFE OF JOHNSON iii 

devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of 
devotion; that 1 we here highly resolve that 2 these dead 3 shall 4 
not have .died in vain 5 ; that 2 this nation, under God, shall 4 have 
a new birth of freedom, and that 2 government of the people, by 
the people, for the people, shall 4 not perish from the earth. 

II 

FROM MACAULAY'S " LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON " 

But, though 6 his pen was now idle, his tongue was active. The 
influence exercised 7 by his conversation, directly upon those w T ith 
whom he lived, and indirectly on the whole literary world, was alto- 
gether 8 without a parallel. His colloquial talents were, indeed, 9 of 
the highest order. 10 He had strong sense, quick discernment, wit, 
humor, immense knowledge of literature and of life, and an infinite 
store of curious anecdotes. As respected u style, he spoke far better 
than 12 he wrote. Every sentence which dropped from his lips was 
as correct in structure as the most nicely balanced period of " The 
Rambler." 13 But in his talk there 14 were no pompous triads, and 
little more 15 than 16 a fair proportion of words in -osity and -at ion. 
All was simplicity, ease, and vigor. He uttered his short, weighty, 
and pointed sentences with a power of voice, and a justness and 
energy of emphasis, of which 17 the effect was rather increased than 
diminished by the rollings of his huge form, and by the asthmatic 
gaspings and puffings in which the peals of his eloquence generally 
ended. Nor did the laziness which made him unwilling 18 to 
sit 19 down to his desk prevent him from giving 20 instruction 21 or 

1 § 392. 2 §§ 375^ 395. 3 Cf . § 175. 4 §§ 237, 297. 5 a prepositional 
adverbial phrase. 6 § 386. 7 § 329. 8 The adverb altogether modifies 

the adjective phrase icithout a parallel (= matchless). See §457,4, examples 
8-12. 9 § 466. io § 457, 4. n As respected = as for] as to (§ 347) . .4s 

respected style is, 1 in strictness, an adverbial clause modifying the adverb 
better (§ 462, IV) ; the verb is used impersonally without a subject (cf . § 224, 1). 
12 § 416. 13 Supply is (§ 416). i4 § 192. i* Triads and more (connected 
by and) make the compound subject of were (§37). We need not supply 
there was before little. More, though used as a noun, is modified by the 
adverb little (§ 190), since more is by nature an adjective. 1Q § 416. 17 This 
relative clause has the effect of a clause of result (§ 393) : ivith such a poiver 
etc. that the effect was rather increased etc. 18 § 101. 19 § 312. 2° A 

participial noun (gerund), object of from (§§ 339-340). 21 § 340, 1. 



iv SUPPLEMENT 

entertainment orally. To discuss x questions of taste, of learning, 
of casuistry, in language so exact and so forcible that 2 it might 3 
have been printed without the alteration of a word, was to him no 
exertion, but a pleasure. He loved, as he said, 4 to fold 5 his legs 
and have 5 his talk out. 6 He was ready to bestow 7 the overflow- 
ings of his full mind on anybody who would start a subject, on a 
fellow passenger 8 in a stagecoach, or on the person who sate 9 at 
the same table with him in an eating 10 house. But his conversation 
was nowhere so brilliant and striking as u when he was surrounded 
by a few friends, whose abilities and knowledge enabled them, as 
he once expressed it, 4 to send 12 him 13 back every ball that he threw. 
Some 14 of these, in 1764, 15 formed themselves 16 into a club, which 
gradually became a formidable power in the commonwealth of 
letters. The verdicts pronounced 17 by this conclave on new books 
were speedily known over all London, and were sufficient to sell 7 
off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn 7 the sheets to the serv- 
ice of the trunk-maker and the pastry cook. Nor shall we think 
this strange 18 when we consider what 19 great and various talents 
and acquirements met in the little fraternity. Goldsmith was the 
representative of poetry and light literature, Reynolds 20 of the arts, 
Burke 20 of political eloquence and political philosophy. There, 21 
too, were Gibbon, the greatest historian, and Jones, the greatest 
linguist, of the age. Garrick brought to the meetings his inexhaust- 
ible pleasantry, his incomparable mimicry, and his consummate 
knowledge of stage 22 effect. Among the most constant attendants 
were two high-born and high-bred gentlemen, closely bound together 
by friendship, but of widely different characters and habits : Bennet 
Langton, 23 distinguished by his skill in Greek literature, by the 
orthodoxy of his opinions, and by the sanctity of his life ; and 
Topham Beauclerk, 23 renowned for his amours, his knowledge of 
the gay world, his fastidious taste, and his sarcastic wit. To 

i§308. 2 a clause of result (§393). 3 § 285, 2. 4 §466. «§ 314, note. 

6 The adverb out modifies the infinitive have ; have out = finish, complete. 

7 § 312. 8 § 60. 9 Archaic (that is, old) past tense of sit. 10 § 342. u Supply 
it was (§416). 12 Them to send may he regarded as an infinitive clause of 
result (§396) used as the object of enabled (cf. §316). Since enabled them is 
equivalent to made them able (en- being a causative prefix ; see the diction- 
ary), the infinitive is logically a modifier of the adjective able contained in 
the verb. is § 103. 1 4 § 135. is § 204. is § 126, 2. W § 329. is §101. 
19 § 429. 20 Supply the ellipsis. 21 Not the expletive. 22 §§ 25 ; 26, 1. 
23 One of the appositives to gentlemen. 



LIFE OF JOHNSON v 

predominate T over such a society was not easy. Yet 2 even 3 over 
such a society Johnson predominated. Burke might, indeed, 4 have 
disputed the supremacy to which others were under the necessity 
of submitting. But Burke, though 5 not generally a very patient 
listener, was content to take 6 the second part when Johnson was 
present; and the club itself, consisting of so many eminent men, 7 
is to this day popularly designated as Johnson's Club. 8 

Among the members of this celebrated body was one to whom it 
has owed the greater part of its celebrity, yet 2 who was regarded 
with little respect by his brethren, and had not without difficulty 
obtained a seat among them. This was James Boswell, a young 
Scotch lawyer, heir to an honorable name and a fair estate. That 9 
he was a coxcomb, and a bore, weak, vain, pushing, curious, gar- 
rulous, was obvious to all who were acquainted with him. That 9 
he could not reason, that 9 he had no wit, no humor, no eloquence, 
is apparent from his writings. 10 And yet 2 his writings are read 
beyond the Mississippi, and under the Southern Cross, and are 
likely to be read 6 as long as the English u exists, either as a living 
or as a dead language. 12 Nature had made him a slave 13 and an 
idolater. 13 His mind resembled those creepers which the botanists 
call parasites, 13 and which can subsist only by clinging 14 round the 
stems and imbibing 14 the juices of stronger plants. He must 15 have 
fastened 15 himself on somebody. He might 16 have fastened him- 
self on Wilkes, and have become the fiercest patriot in the Bill 
of Rights Society. 17 He might have fastened himself on Whitefield, 
and have become the loudest field preacher among the Calvinistic 18 
Methodists. In a happy hour he fastened himself on Johnson. The 
pair might seem ill matched. For Johnson had early 19 been preju- 
diced against Boswell's country. To a man of Johnson's strong 

i § 308. 2 § 354. 3 Adverb modifying the phrase that follows (§ 462, IV). 
4 § 466. 5 § 3 8 6. Supply he was (§ 482, 2(3)). 6 § 312. 7 § 443. 8 Predi- 
cate nominative after the passive verb is designated (§248). As is merely an 
introductory conjunction. Cf. p. ii, note 12, above. 9 § 375, 1. 10 Macaulay, 
in his fondness for point and antithesis, is very unjust to Boswell. n That 
is, the English language (§ 26). 12 Appositive to English. The conjunction 
as, by a common idiom, connects the appositive with its noun (see above, 
p. ii, note 12). In origin this use is elliptical: exists either as a living 
or as a dead language [exists] (cf . § 416) ; but no such ellipsis is now felt 
(§486). is §100. ' 14 §340. is § 287. For the perfect (past) infinitive 

compare the usage after ought (§ 288). 16 § 285, 2. *? §§ 40, 55. . i8 § 168. 
19 § 190. 



vi SUPPLEMENT 

understanding and irritable temper, the silly egotism and adulation 
of Boswell must have been as teasing as the constant buzz of a fly. 1 
Johnson hated to be questioned 2 ; and Boswell was eternally cate- 
chising 3 him on all kinds of subjects, and sometimes propounded 
such questions as 4 " What would 5 you do, sir, if you were locked 6 
up in a tower with a baby ? " Johnson was a water-drinker ; and Bos- 
well was a wine-bibber, and, indeed, 7 little 8 better than a habitual 
sot. 9 It 10 was impossible that there n should 12 be perfect harmony 
between two such 13 companions. Indeed, 7 the great man was some- 
times provoked into fits of passion in which he said things which 
the small man, during 14 a few 15 hours, seriously resented. Every 
quarrel, however, 16 was soon made up. 17 During 14 twenty years the 
disciple continued to worship 18 the master : the master continued 
to scold 18 the disciple, to sneer 18 at 19 him, and to love 18 him. The 
two friends ordinarily resided at a great distance from each other. 20 
Boswell practised in the Parliament House 21 of Edinburgh, and 
could pay only occasional visits to London. During 14 those visits 
his chief business was to watch 22 Johnson, to discover 22 all John- 
son's habits, to turn 22 the conversation to subjects about which 
Johnson was likely to say 23 something remarkable, and to fill 22 
quarto notebooks with minutes of what 24 Johnson had said. In 
this way were gathered the materials out of 14 which was afterwards 
constructed the most interesting 25 biographical work in the world. 26 

Ill 

FROM WEBSTER'S "FIRST BUNKER HILL ORATION" 

The leading reflection to which this occasion seems to invite 18 us, 
respects 27 the great changes which have happened in the fifty years 
since 28 the battle of Bunker Hill was fought. And it 29 peculiarly 

1 Supply is or would have been (§ 416). 2 § 314, note. 3 §§ 251-252. 

4 §146. 5 Either would or should would be correct (§ 293, III). 6 § 409. 

' § 466. 8 § 190. 9 A gross exaggeration. 10 §§ 224, 2 ; 380. U § 192. 
■12 §300. 13 §§ 135-136. 14 §347. 15 § 140. w Conjunction connecting 
this sentence with the preceding (§ 352). 1 7 The adverb up added to the verb 
made completes the verb and gives to the phrase was made up the meaning 
was reconciled. To make up is practically a single word (a compound verb). 
is § 314, 1. 19 § 247, note. 20 § 133. 21 § 55. 22 § 308. 23 § 312. 24 -. t j iat 
which (§ 155). 25 § 333. 26 Note the inverted order (§ 7) throughout this 

.sentence. 27 = concerns, relates to. 28 §§ 353, 382. 29 § 3$o. 



BUNKER HILL ORATION vii 

marks the character of the present age, that, 1 in looking 2 at 3 these 
changes, and in estimating their effect on our condition, we are 
obliged to. consider, 4 not what 5 has been done in our own country 
only, but 6 in others also. In these interesting times, while nations 
are making separate and individual advances in improvement, they 
make, too, a common progress ; like 7 vessels on a common tide, 
propelled by the gales at different rates, according to 8 their several 
structure and management, but all moved forward by one mighty 
current, strong enough to bear 9 onward whatever 10 does not sink 
beneath it. 

The chief distinction of the present day is a community of 
opinions and knowledge amongst men in different nations, exist- 
ing u in a degree heretofore unknown. Knowledge has, in our time, 
triumphed, and is triumphing, over distance, over difference of 
languages, over diversity of habits, over prejudice, and over bigotry. 
The civilized and Christian world is fast 12 learning the great lesson, 
that 13 difference of nation does not imply necessary hostility, and 
that 13 all contact need 14 not 15 be w T ar. The whole world is becoming 
a common field for 16 intellect to act in. Energy of mind, genius, power, 
wheresoever it exists, may speak out 17 in any tongue, and the world 
will hear it. A great chord of sentiment and feeling runs through 
two continents, and vibrates over both. Every breeze wafts intelli- 
gence from country to country ; every wave rolls it ; all give it 
forth, and all in turn receive it. There is a vast commerce of ideas ; 

1 § 380. 2 Adverbial phrase made by means of the participial noun 

(gerund, §§338-340) and modifying the predicate verb of the clause. The 
phrase is equivalent to when ive look. 3 § 247, note. 4 In the active con- 
struction (this obliges us to consider) the object of obliges would be the infini- 
tive clause. With the passive the infinitive is retained. Compare the usage in 
indirect discourse (§423, 3). 5 Indirect question (§427), object of to consider 
(§429). 6 Supply what has been done. 7 The adverb like modifies make. 
For vessels, the objective (originally a dative) after like, see § 109. 8 § 347. 

9 §§ 312, 396. 10 The compound relative pronoun ivhatever has a double 

construction, being the object of to bear and the subject of does sink (§ 157). 
It is also possible to regard the whole clause as the object (§155, note). 
11 The predicate nominative (community) is modified by the participle 
existing (§ 458, 1 ; cf. § 443, remark after example 8). Existing is modified by 
the adverbial phrase which follows it. 12 § 190. ^ §§ 375 ; 419, 4. M The 
form need (third person singular without s) is made by analogy with may, 
can, etc. (p. 217, IV). 15 Logically, not is a modifier of all, not of need be. 

16 § 318 ; for intellect to act in = in which intellect may act. lr The adverb 
out modifies the verb speak. 



viii SUPPLEMENT 

there are x marts and exchanges for intellectual discoveries, and a 
wonderful fellowship of those individual intelligencies which make 
up 2 the mind and the opinion of the age. Mind is the great lever 
of all things ; human thought is the process by which human ends 
are ultimately answered ; and the diffusion of knowledge, so 3 aston- 
ishing in the last half-century, has rendered innumerable minds, 
variously gifted by nature, competent 4 to be the competitors or 
fellow-workers on the theatre of intellectual operation. 

From these causes important improvements have taken place in 
the personal condition of individuals. Generally speaking, 5 man- 
kind 6 are not only better fed and better clothed, 7 but they are able 
also to enjoy 8 more leisure ; they possess more refinement and more 
self-respect. A superior tone of education, manners, and habits pre- 
vails. This remark, most true 9 in its application to our own country, 
is also partly true when applied 10 elsewhere. It is proved by the 
vastly augmented consumption of those articles of manufacture and 
of commerce which 11 contribute to the comforts and the decencies 
of life ; an augmentation 12 which has far outrun the progress of 
population. And while 13 the unexampled and almost incredible use 
of machinery would seem to supply the place of labor, labor still 
finds its occupation and its reward ; 14 so 15 wisely has Providence 
adjusted men's wants and desires to their condition and their capacity. 

Any adequate survey, however, 16 of the progress made during 17 the 
last half -century in the polite and the mechanic arts, in machinery 
and manufactures, in commerce and agriculture, in letters and in 
science, would require volumes. I must abstain wholly from these 
subjects, and turn for the moment to the contemplation of what 18 
has been done on the great question of politics and government. 

1 Three nouns in a series — marts, exchanges, and felloiv ship — make a 
compound subject of are (§§37, 192). It is not necessary to supply there is 
before a loonderful felloioship . 2 The adverb up completes the verb make ; 
make up = compose, constitute. 3 Astonishing (§ 333) is an appositive adjec- 
tive belonging to diffusion (§ 170, 2) and is modified by the adverb so. It is 
not necessary to supply ivhich has been before so. 4 §§ 100-101. 5 §§ 330, 466. 
6 § 228. 7 That is, than they were fifty years ago. 8 §§ 312, 463. 9 § 170, 2. 
1° § 482, 2 (3) . 11 Adjective clause modifying articles (§§ 368-369) . 12 Apposi- 
tive to consumption (§§ 83, 5 ; 112). 1 3 §§ 358, 386. 14 This oration was 
delivered on June 17, 1825. 15 So wisely . . . capacity is an independent 
clause, coordinate with labor still finds, etc. It is introduced by so, an adverb of 
degree ( = to such an extent, § 189, 4) . 16 Conjunction connecting this sentence 
(and therefore this paragraph) with the preceding. 17 § 347. 18 §§ 379 ; 429, 5. 



ESSAY ON BURNS ix 

This is the master x topic of the age ; and during 2 the whole fifty 
years 3 it has intensely occupied the thoughts of men. The nature 
of civil government, its ends and uses, have 4 been canvassed and 
investigated ; ancient opinions 5 attacked and defended ; new ideas 5 
recommended and resisted, by whatever 6 power the mind of man 
could bring to the controversy. From the closet and^ the public halls 
the debate has been transferred to the field ; and the world has 
been shaken by wars of unexampled magnitude and the greatest 
variety of fortune. 7 A day of peace has at length succeeded ; and 
now that 8 the strife has subsided, and the smoke 9 cleared away, 
we may begin to see 10 what n has actually been done, permanently 
changing 12 the state and condition of human society. And, with- 
out 13 dwelling on particular circumstances, it 14 is most apparent 
that, 14 from the before-mentioned causes of augmented knowledge 
and improved individual condition, a real, substantial, and important 
change has taken place, and is taking place, highly favorable, 15 on 
the whole, 16 to human liberty and human happiness. 

IV 

FROM CARLYLE'S "ESSAY ON BURNS" 

All that remains of Burns, the writings 17 he has left, seem to us, 
as 18 we hinted above, 19 no more 20 than a poor mutilated fraction a 
of what 22 was in him.; brief, broken glimpses 23 of a genius that 
could never show itself complete 24 ; that wanted 25 all things for 

1 Master may be regarded as an adjective (= main, chief), or master topic 
may be taken as a compound noun (§ 60, note). 2 § 347. 3 Fifty years 

is treated as a collective noun and may therefore be limited by the whole, 
which is not regularly used attributively (§ 170, 1) with a plural noun. 4 The 
subject of have been canvassed is compound {nature, ends, uses). 5 Supply 
the ellipsis (§ 482, 2). 6 § i^o. 7 The prepositional adjective phrase of . . . 
fortune modifies ivars. 8 now that = since. The compound subordinate 

clause (§ 474) is an adverbial clause of time, but with a suggestion of cause 
as well. 9 Supply the ellipsis. i° § 314, 1. u § 429. i 2 Used like 

an appositive adjective (§ 170, 2), modifying what. 13 The phrase without 

dwelling etc. is equivalent to an adverbial clause of concession (§386), modi- 
fying apparent (§ 457, 4, example 7) : though I do not dwell, etc. 14 § 380. 
15 § 170, 2. 16 The adverbial phrase on the whole modifies favorable. 
17 §§ 446, 150. is § 466. 19 § 350. 20 Predicate nominative (§ 83, 2) . 
21 § 416. 22 § 155. 23 Appositive to fraction (§ 83, 5). 24 § 101. 
25 =lacked. 



x SUPPLEMENT 

completeness : culture, leisure, true effort — nay, 1 even 2 length of 
life. His poems are, with 3 scarcely any exception, mere occasional 
effusions ; poured 4 forth with little premeditation ; expressing, 4 by 
such means as 5 offered, 6 the passion, opinion, or humor of the hour. 
Never in one instance was it 7 permitted him 8 to grapple 7 with 
any subject with the full collection of his strength, to fuse 7 and 
mold 7 it in the concentrated fire of his genius. To try by the 
strict rules of art such imperfect fragments, would be at once d 
unprofitable and unfair. Nevertheless, there is something in these 
poems, marred and defective as 10 they are, which forbids the most 
fastidious student 11 of poetry to pass them by. 12 Some sort of 
enduring quality they must have : for, after fifty years of the wild- 
■ est vicissitudes in poetic taste, they still continue to be read 13 ; 
nay, 1 are read 14 more and more eagerly, more and more exten- 
sively; and this 15 not only 16 by the literary virtuosos, 17 and that 
class upon whom transitory causes operate most strongly, but 16 by 
all classes, down to the most hard, unlettered, and truly natural 
class, who read little, 18 and especially no poetry, except 19 because 
they find pleasure in it. 20 The grounds of so singular and wide a 
popularity, which extends, in a literal sense, from the palace to the 
hut, and over all regions where 21 the English tongue is spoken, 
are well worth inquiring 22 into. 23 After every just deduction, 24 

1 § 466. 2 Even (adverb modifying wanted, § 190) serves to emphasize 

length of life. s An adjective phrase modifying poems. 4 § 329. 5 § 146>. 
6 — offered themselves (§ 211). ' 7 § 309. 8 § 249, 1. 9 The phrase at 

once has here the force of the conjunction both, the correlative of and 
(§ 359) . i° § 389. 11 § 316. 12 § 350. is § 314, 1. 14 d g not supply 
they, for continue and are read make a compound predicate to they (§38). 
15 The pronoun this has the effect of repeating the statement that begins 
with after fifty years and ends with extensively. It may be regarded as an 
adverbial objective equivalent to indeed. See below, p. xiii, note 13. 16 not 
only . . . but is a (more emphatic) logical equivalent of both . . . and (§ 352). 
17 The phrase by literary virtuosos modifies both to be read and are read 
(§ 245). 18 § 190. 19 § 379. 20 The antecedent of it is the noun reading, 
implied in the verb. 21 § 382, I. 22 A participial noun (gerund) used as 

adverbial objective (§ 111) after the adjective ivorth, and answering the 
question Worth how much? 23 Since a preposition with its object is often 

attached to a verb or verbal (infinitive, participle, participial noun), the 
preposition is sometimes retained with the verb or verbal in constructions in 
which there is no object for the preposition (cf. § 247, note). In such cases the 
preposition (with adverbial force) may be regarded as a part of the (com- 
pound) verb. Cf. the extract from Burke, p. xiii below, line 12. 24 Adverbial 
phrase modifying to imply. 



ESSAY OK BURNS xi 

it 1 seems to imply 2 some rare excellence in these works. What 
is that excellence? 

To answer this question will not lead us far. The excellence of 
Burns is, indeed, 3 among the rarest, 4 whether 5 in poetry or prose ; 
but, at the same time, it is plain and easily recognized 6 : his 
sincerity, his indisputable air of truth. Here are 7 no fabulous 
woes or joys; no hollow fantastic sentimentalities; no wire-drawn 
re finings, either 8 in thought or feeling : the passion that is traced 
before us has glowed in a living heart ; the opinion 9 he utters has 
risen in his own understanding, and been a light to his own steps. 
He does not write from hearsay, but from sight and experience ; it 
is 10 the scenes that 11 he has lived and labored amidst, that he 
describes : those scenes, rude and humble as they are, 12 have kindled 
beautiful emotions in his soul, noble thoughts, and definite resolves ; 
and he speaks forth what 13 is in him, not from any outward call of 
vanity or interest, but because his heart is too 14 full to be 14 silent. 
He speaks it with such melody and modulation as 15 he can 16 ; " in 
homely rustic jingle " ; 17 but it is his own, and genuine. This 18 is 
the grand secret for finding readers and retaining them : let 19 him 
who would 20 move 21 and convince 21 others, be 22 first moved and 
convinced himself. 23 Horace's rule, "Si vis me flere," 2 * is applicable 
in a wider sense than 25 the literal one. 26 To every poet, to every 
writer, we might say: "Be true, if you would be believed." 21 Let 
a man but 27 speak 22 forth with genuine earnestness the thought, 
the emotion, the actual condition of his own heart ; and other men, 



1 The antecedent of it is popularity '. 2 § 314, 1. 3 § 466. 4 Supply 

excellences. 5 §§ 359, 402. Supply the ellipsis. 6 The adjectival character 
of the participle is shown by the fact that plain and recognized are joined 
by and. ~ There are four subject nouns with are. 8 § 359. 9 § 150. 
10 For analysis the sentence may be rearranged: It that (relative) [= that 
ivhich] he describes is . . . the scenes, etc. It in this idiom has a collective 
sense and admits a plural (scenes) as predicate nominative. n Object of 
amidst. * 2 Concessive (§ 389) . is § 155. i* § 396. 15 § 146. is An 
ellipsis ; supply speak it with. 17 An adverbial phrase. 18 The aphoristic 
sentence following the colon is the antecedent of this. i9 This sentence is 
used like a direct quotation (p. 130, footnote), and as such is an appositive 
to this. For the infinitive clause see §316. 20 = Irishes, desires. 21 An 
infinitive. 22 infinitive with let (§ 316). 23 Appositive to him (§ 126, 1). 

24 " Si vis me flere, dolendum est Primum ipsi tibi " (If you wish me to weep, 
you must first feel grief yourself) . — Ars Poetica, 102-103. ^ § 415. 26 § 204. 
27 Adverb (= only). 



xii SUPPLEMENT 

so x strangely are we all knit together by the tie of sympathy, must 
and will give heed to him. In culture, in extent of view, we may 
stand above the speaker, or below him; but in either case, his 
words, if they are earnest and sincere, will find some response within 
us ; for in spite of 2 all casual varieties in outward rank or inward, 
as face answers to face, so does the heart of man 3 to man. 

It is on his songs, as we believe, 4 that 5 Burns's chief influence 
as an author 6 will ultimately be found to depend 7 : nor, if our 
Fletcher's aphorism 8 is true, shall we account this a small influ- 
ence. 9 " Let me make 10 the songs of a people," said he, M and you 
shall make its laws." Surely, if ever any poet might have equalled 
himself with legislators on this ground, 11 it 12 was Burns. His songs 
are already part of the mother tongue, not of Scotland only but of 
Britain, and of the millions that in all the ends of the earth speak 
a British language. In hut and hall, as 13 the heart unfolds itself in 
many-colored joy and woe of existence, the name, the voice of that 
joy and that woe, is the name and voice which Burns has given 
them. Strictly speaking, 14 perhaps no British man has so deeply 
affected the thoughts and feelings of so many men, as this soli- 
tary and altogether private individual, 15 with means apparently 
the humblest. 

V 

FROM BURKE'S "SPEECH ON CONCILIATION WITH 
AMERICA " 

These, sir, 16 are my reasons for not entertaining that high opinion 
of untried force, by which many gentlemen for whose sentiments in 
other particulars I have great respect, seem to be so greatly captivated. 

1 So strangely . . . sympathy is an independent parenthetical sentence 
(§ 466). The same thought might have been expressed in a subordinate causal 
clause (§385), — since ice are all strangely knit together, etc., — modifying 
must and will give. 2 § 347. 3 An ellipsis ; supply answer. 4 § 466. 
5 § 380. 6 Since Burns 9 s = of Burns, author is used as an appositive. The 
conjunction as is idiomatically used to introduce the appositive. See p. ii, 
note 12. 7 § 423, 3. 8 Carlyle quotes from memory. Fletcher of Saltoun 
wrote : "I knew a very wise man that believed that, if a man were permitted 
to make all the ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a 
nation." 9 §100. i° §316. n That is, as the maker of the songs of his 
people. 12 § 224, 2. is Adverb of time (§ 358). w §§ 330, 466. w An 
ellipsis ; supply has affected them (§ 416). W §§ 83, 3; 465. 



CONCILIATION WITH AMERICA xiii 

But there is still behind 1 a third consideration concerning 2 this 
object, which serves to determine my opinion on the sort of 
policy which ought to 3 be pursued in the management of America, 
even more than its population and its commerce, 4 I mean its temper 
and character. 

In this character of the Americans, a love of freedom is the 
predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole 5 ; 
and as 6 an ardent 7 is always a jealous affection, your colonies 
become suspicious, restive, and untractable, whenever they see the 
least attempt to wrest 8 from them by force or shuffle 8 from them 
by chicane, what they think the only advantage 9 worth living 10 
for. 11 This fierce spirit of liberty is stronger in the English colonies 
probably than 12 in any other people of the earth ; and this 13 from a 
great variety of powerful causes ; which, 14 to understand 15 the true 
temper of their minds, and the direction which this spirit takes, it 16 
will not be amiss to lay 16 open 17 somewhat 18 more largely. 

The temper and character which prevail in our colonies, are, I 
am afraid, 19 unalterable by any human art. We cannot, I fear, 19 
falsify the pedigree of this fierce people, and persuade them that 20 
they are not sprung from a nation in whose veins the blood of 
freedom circulates. The language in which they would 21 hear you 
tell 22 them 28 this tale would 21 detect 24 the imposition : 25 your 
speech would betray you. An Englishman is the unfittest person 
on earth 26 to argue 8 another Englishman into slavery. 

i § 350. 2 § 347. 3 § 288. 4 Supply serve to determine it (§ 416). 

5 The whole (here a noun) = the whole character. 6 § 358. 7 Supply the 

ellipsis. 8 § 312. 9 § 100. 10 Adverbial objective after the adjective 

ivorth (§ 111). n See above, p. x, note 23. 12 Supply it is (§ 416). is It 
is easy to supply comes or results; but that would be to misrepresent the 
construction. The effect of this is to repeat, with emphasis, the preceding 
assertion. This may be regarded as an adverbial objective, practically 
equivalent to the adverb indeed. (Cf. p. x, note 15, above.) 14 Object of 

lay. 15 Purpose, modifying lay (§ 314, 2). 16 § 309. 17 The adjective 

serves as a predicate objective after lay (§ 101). 18 §§ 111, 140. 19 § 466. 

20 Indirect discourse after persuade (§§418-419); direct, "You are not" etc. 
In this use them is really the indirect object of persuade and the that-cl&use 
is the direct object (§103). 21 §281, 3. 22 §313. 23 § 103. 24 - expose, 
reveal. 25 What precedes might be expanded into a less vivid future con- 
ditional sentence : If you shoutd tell them this tale, the language . . . ivould 
detect the imposition (§ 413, 2). 26 Adjective phrase modifying \ person. 



xiv SUPPLEMENT 

VI 

FROM WASHINGTON'S "FAREWELL ADDRESS" 

In looking 1 forward to the moment which is intended to ter- 
minate 2 the career of my public life, my feelings do not permit 
me to suspend 3 the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude 
which I owe to my beloved country for the many honors 4 it has 
conferred upon me; still more for the steadfast confidence with 
which it has supported me ; and for the opportunities 4 I have 
thence 5 enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attachment by serv- 
ices faithful and persevering, though in usefulness 6 unequal to my 
zeal. If 7 benefits have resulted to our country from these services, 
let it always be remembered 8 to your praise and as 9 an instructive 
example in our annals, that under circumstances in which 10 the 
passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead, amidst 
appearances sometimes dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often dis- 
couraging, in situations in which u not infrequently want of success 
has countenanced the spirit of criticism, the constancy of your sup- 
port was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of the 
plans, by which 12 they were effected. Profoundly penetrated 13 with 

1 An adverbial phrase consisting of a preposition with a participial noun 
(gerund) as its object, frequently modifies; a verb as an adverbial clause (of 
time, etc.) might do. Here in looking is equivalent to when (or as) I look, 
and modifies do . . . permit. 2 In the active voice we should have which 1 

intend to terminate ; the object of intend would be ivhich to terminate, an 
infinitive clause of purpose (§§316, 397). When intend is changed to the 
passive, which (the subject of the infinitive to terminate) becomes the subject 
of is intended, and the infinitive is retained as an adverbial modifier of is 
intended. Compare the passive construction in indirect discourse (§ 423, 3, and 
note). 3 = withhold. 4 § 150. 5 That is, from that steadfast confidence. 
6 Supply they have been (§ 482, 2 (3)). 7 Non-committal past condition (§ 408). 
The conclusion is the imperative let (with an infinitive clause as object) 
(§ 316). 8 In this infinitive clause the grammatical subject of the infinitive 
be remembered is the expletive it. The real (or logical) subject, however, is 
the clause that . . . the constancy . . . was the . . . prop, etc. Grammatically 
the thai-clause is appositive to it. (See §§ 316 ; 380 ; 423, 2.) 9 As serves as a 
conjunction introducing an appositive (example) which explains or defines the 
noun clause that . . . the constancy, etc. (see above, p. ii, note 12). Logically, 
however, as an instructive example modifies be remembered (as for an 
instructive example would do), and accordingly it is attached (by and) to 
the adverbial modifier to your praise. 10 The adjective clause modifies 

circumstances. n The clause modifies situations. 12 The clause modifies 
efforts and plans. 13 Participle belonging to / (§ 329). 



WORDSWORTH xv 

this idea, I shall carry it with me to the grave as 1 a strong incite- 
ment to nnceasing vows 2 that 3 Heaven may continne to yon the 
choicest tokens of its beneficence ; that your union and brotherly 
affection may be perpetual ; that the free Constitution which is the 
work of your hands may be sacredly maintained ; that its adminis- 
tration in every department may be stamped with wisdom and 
virtue ; that, in fine, 4 the happiness of the people of these States 
under the auspices of liberty may be made complete, 5 by so careful 
a preservation and so prudent a use of this blessing as 6 will acquire 
to them the glory of recommending 7 it to the applause, the affec- 
tion, and adoption, of every nation which is yet a stranger to it. 

VII 

FROM ARNOLD'S "WORDSWORTH " 

Wordsworth has been in his grave 8 for some thirty years, and 
certainly 4 his lovers and admirers cannot flatter themselves that 9 
this great and steady light of glory as yet 10 shines over him. He is 
not fully recognized at home ; he is not recognized at all u abroad. 
Yet 12 I firmly believe that 13 the poetical performance of Wordsworth 
is, after that of Shakespeare and Milton, of which all the world 
now recognizes the worth, undoubtedly the most considerable in our 
language from the Elizabethan age to the present time. Chaucer is 
anterior ; and on other grounds, too, 14 he cannot well 15 be brought 
into the comparison. But taking 16 the roll of our chief poetical 
names, besides Shakespeare and Milton, from the age of Elizabeth 
downwards, and going 16 through it, — Spenser, 17 Dry den, Pope, Gray, 
Goldsmith, Cowper, Burns, Coleridge, Scott, Campbell, Moore, Byron, 
Shelley, Keats (I mention those only who are dead), 4 — I think 

1 The conjunction introduces an appositive. 2 = solemn prayers. 3 The 
substantive clauses (of purpose) that follow in a series are appositives to 
vows (§ 375, 3). In direct speech the prayers would be May Heaven continue, 
etc. (§§ 272 ; 285/3). 4 § 466 . 5 § 170 , 3 (cf . §§ 101, 248). 6 § i 46 . 7 Gerund 
(participial noun) with it as object (§ 340, 1). 8 Adverbial phrase modifying 
has been (=has lain). 9 The causal adverbial that-clause modifies fatter 
themselves. 10 As yet is an adverbial phrase of time. n Adverbial phrase 
used to intensify the negative adverb not. 12 § 354. ™ §§ 418-419. 14 Modi- 
fies other. 15 § 197. 16 The participles taking and going belong gram- 
matically to the subject I (§443), but logically the participial phrases are 
equivalent to adverbial clauses {when I take, etc.). 17 Spenser, Dryden, etc., 
are appositives to names. 



xvi SUPPLEMENT 

it 1 certain 2 that 1 Wordsworth's name deserves to stand, 3 and will 
finally stand, above them all. Several 4 of the poets named have 
gifts and excellences which Wordsworth has not. But taking 5 the 
performance of each 6 as a whole, 7 I say that Wordsworth seems 
to me to have left 3 a body of poetical work superior in power, in 
interest, in the qualities which give enduring freshness, to that 
which any one of the others has left. 

On the whole, 8 then, 9 as I said at the beginning, 10 not only is 
Wordsworth eminent by reason of 10 the goodness of his best work, 
but he is eminent also by reason of the great body of good work 
which he has left to us. With the ancients I will n not compare him. 
In many respects the ancients are far above us, and yet 12 there 13 is 
something that we demand which they can never give. Leaving 14 
the ancients, let us come 15 to the poets and poetry of Christendom. 
Dante, Shakespeare, Moliere, Milton, Goethe, are altogether larger 
and more splendid luminaries in the poetical heaven than Words- 
worth. 16 But I know not where 17 else, 18 among the moderns, we are 
to find 19 his superiors. 

VIII 

I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD 

William Wordsworth 

I wandered lonely as a cloud 20 

That floats on high o'er vales and hills, 

When all at once 21 I saw a crowd, 

A host, of golden daffodils ; 

Beside the lake, beneath the trees, 

Fluttering 22 and dancing 22 in the breeze. 

1 The grammatical object of think is the expletive it; the real (or logical) 
object is the that-clnuse (cf. § 380). 2 § 101. 3 § 314, 1. 4 § 140. 5 See 
above, p. xv, note 16. 6 §§ 135-136. 7 Predicate objective (§ 100) intro- 

duced by the conjunction as. See above, p. ii, note 12. 8 §466. 9 A con- 
junction (§ 353), connecting this sentence (and paragraph) with what precedes. 
10 §347. n §234. 12 §354. 13 § 192. 14 A participle belonging to us 
(§ 330) . 15 § 273. 16 § 416. 17 §§ 376, 3 ; 195 ; 429. 18 Look up the meanings 
and uses of else in an unabridged dictionary. Here it is an adverb modifying 
where. 19 In the phrase are to find, are to is practically equivalent to the 
modal auxiliary can. Grammatically, the infinitive to find is used as a 
predicate adjective (§457, 4, end). 2° Supply is (§416). 21 All at once is 
an adverbial phrase. 22 The participles belong to daffodils (§§ 323, 329). 



IL PENSEROSO xvii 

Continuous 1 as the stars that shine 
And twinkle on the milky way, 2 
They stretched in never-ending line 
Along the margin of a bay : 
Ten thousand 3 saw I at a glance, 
Tossing 4 their heads in sprightly dance. 

The waves beside them danced, but they 

Outdid the sparkling waves in glee : — 

A poet could not but 5 be gay 

In such a jocund company : 

I gazed — and gazed — but little 6 thought 

What 7 wealth the show to me had brought : 

For oft when on my couch I lie 
In vacant or in pensive mood, 
They flash upon that inward eye 
Which is the bliss of solitude ; 
And then my heart with pleasure fills, 
And dances with the daffodils. 

IX 

FROM MILTON'S "IL PENSEROSO ; ' 

Come, pensive nun, 8 devout and pure, 
Sober, steadfast, and demure, 
All 9 in robe of darkest grain 
Flowing with majestic train, 
And sable stole of cypress lawn 
Over thy decent shoulders drawn. 
Come, but keep thy wonted state, 10 
With even step, and musing gait, 

1 Adjective with they. 2 Supply are (§ 416). 3 Supply daffodils. 4 See 
above, p. xvi, note 22; also §332. 5 The infinitive be is the object of the 
preposition but (—except; §§310, 347). The adverbial phrase but be gay 
modifies the negative adverb not. Compare A poet could do nothing but be 
gay, in which but be gay is an adjective phrase modifying nothing. 6 § 190. 
7 Indirect question, object of thought (§ 429). 8 That is, Melancholy, personi- 
fied (§§57, 63). For case, see §83, 3; cf. §465. 9 All is here an adverb 
(= wholly). It modifies the adjective phrase in robe etc., which describes 
nun. 10 = stateliness, majesty. 



xviii SUPPLEMENT 

And looks commercing 1 with the skies, 

Thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes : 2 

There, held 3 in holy passion 4 still, 

Forget thyself to marble, 5 till, 6 

With a sad 7 leaden downward cast, 

Thou fix 6 them on the earth as fast. 8 

And join with thee calm Peace and Quiet, 9 

Spare 10 Fast, that oft with gods doth diet, 

And hears the Muses, in a ring, 

Aye n round about Jove's altar sing. 12 

And add to these retired Leisure, 

That in trim gardens takes his pleasure. 

But first, and chief est, with thee bring 

Him that yon soars on golden wing, 

Guiding the fiery-wheeled throne, 

The cherub Contemplation ; 

And the mute Silence hist 13 along, 

'Less Philomel 14 will 15 deign a song, 

In her sweetest, saddest plight, 

Smoothing the rugged brow of Night, 

While Cynthia 16 checks her dragon yoke 

Gently o'er th' accustomed oak. 

Sweet bird, 17 that shunn'st the noise of folly, 

Most musical, most melancholy ! 

Thee, chauntress, oft, the woods among, 

I woo, to hear 18 thy even -song; 

And, missing thee, I walk unseen 

On the dry smooth-shaven green, 



l = holding converse with. 2 § 336. 3 Participle belonging to thou, the 
unexpressed subject of the imperative forget (§ 263). 4 That is, in a devout 
trance of holy thoughts. 5 That is, Stand, self -forgetful in thy absorption in 
holy thoughts, until thou seemest a statue of pure white marble. 6 §279. 

7 — sober, serious. The figurative use of leaden expresses the same idea more 
emphatically. 8 That is, as fast (= steadfastly ; § 190) as thou didst fix them 
on the skies. 9 §57. 10 = lean, thin. n Adverb modifying sing. 12 §313. 
13 The construction of hist is uncertain. Perhaps it is an imperative (== bring 
noiselessly), or, quite as probably, a subjunctive (third person) in exhortation 
(= let Silence come noiselessly; cf. §273). 14 That is, the nightingale, the 
sweet bird mentioned five lines below. 15 § 298. 16 That is, the moon. 
17 § 83, 3. is § 314, 2. 



TO A SKYLARK xix 

To behold x the wandering Moon 
Riding near her highest noon, 
Like 2 one that had been led astray 
Through the heaven's wide pathless way, 
And oft, as if 3 her head she bowed, 
Stooping through a fleecy cloud. 



X 
FROM SHELLEY'S "TO A SKYLARK" 

Hail to thee, 4 blithe spirit ! 

Bird thou never wert, 
That from heaven, or near it, 

Pourest thy full heart 
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. 

Higher still and higher 

From the earth thou springest 
Like 2 a cloud of fire ; 

The blue deep thou wingest, 
And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest. 

Teach us, sprite or bird, 

What sweet thoughts are thine ; 
I have never heard 
Praise of love or wine 
That panted forth a flood of rapture so divine : 5 

Chorus Hymenseal, 
Or triumphal c haunt, 
> Matched with thine would be all 6 
But 7 an empty vaunt, 
A thing wherein 8 we feel 9 there is some hidden want. 



i § 314, 2. 2 § io9. 3 § 414. 4 § 271. 5 Supply as thou pourest 

(§416). 6 All belongs to chorus and chaunt (would all be but an empty 
vaunt). " = only. 8 Adjective clause modifying thing. 9 § 484. 



xx SUPPLEMENT 

We look before x and after 

And pine for what 2 is 3 not : 
Our sincerest laughter 

With some pain is fraught 4 ; 
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. 

Yet if 5 we could scorn 

Hate, and pride, and fear ; 
If we were 5 things born 

Not to shed 6 a tear, 
I know not how 7 thy joy we ever should come near. 

Better than all measures 

Of delightful sound — 
Better than all treasures 

That in books are found — 
Thy skill to poet were, 8 thou scorn er of the ground ! 9 

Teach 10 me half the gladness u 

That thy brain must know, 
Such harmonious madness 
From my lips would flow, 12 
The world should 13 listen then — as I am listening now. 

XI 

ODE ON A GRECIAN URN 

John Keats 

Thou still unravished bride of quietness, 
Thou foster-child of silence and slow time, 

Sylvan historian, who canst thus express 

A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme : 14 

i § 350. 2 § 155. 3 § 213. 4 - laden. 5 § 409. 6 With born (§ 396) . 
7 § 429. s § 278. 9 Note the complete inversion in the order of the sentence. 
10 The imperative portion of the sentence Teach . . . know is equivalent to 
a conditional clause: If thou wouldst teach me etc. (§412). n §§ 103, 104. 

12 §§ 484 ; 391, 2. 13 § 299. 14 Supply can express it. These first four lines 
consist of three vocatives, with modifiers. 



ODE ON A GRECIAN URN xxi 

What leaf-fringed legend haunts about thy shape 
Of deities or mortals, or of both, 
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady? 
What men or gods are these ? What maidens loth ? 1 
What mad pursuit ? What struggle to escape ? 2 
What pipes and timbrels ? What wilc^ ecstasy ? 

Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard 

Are sweeter ; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on ; 3 
Not to the sensual ear, but, more endeared, 4 

Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone : 
Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave 

Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare ; 
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss, 
Though 5 winning near the goal — yet, do not grieve ; 

She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss, 
For ever wilt thou love and she be fair ! 

Ah, 6 happy, happy boughs ! that cannot shed 

Your leaves, nor ever bid 7 the Spring adieu ; 
And, happy melodist, unwearied, 

For ever piping songs for ever new ; 
More happy love ! more happy, happy love ! 

For ever warm and still to be enjoyed, 2 
For ever panting, and for ever young ; 
All breathing human passion far above, 8 

That 9 leaves a heart high-sorrowful and cloyed, 
A burning forehead, and a parching tongue. 

Who are these coming to the sacrifice ? 

To what green altar, O mysterious priest, 
Lead'st thou that heifer lowing at the skies, 

And all her silken flanks with garlands dressed ? 10 

1 In this and the following elliptical sentences supply the omitted words. 
2 § 312. 3 § 350. 4 More endeared modifies ditties. 5 Supply thou art 
(§482, 2 (3)). 6 This stanza contains no complete sentence, but consists of 

exclamatory vocatives (nominatives of direct address, §83,3), with their 
modifiers. 7 § 103. 8 This line is a prepositional adjective phrase modify- 
ing love. 9 Adjective clause modifying pussio7i. 10 Nominative absolute 
(§336; cf. §452). Such phrases are regularly adverbial modifiers, but here 
the phrase is used as an adjective modifier of heifer and is joined to the 
participle lowing (another adjective modifier) by and. 



xxii SUPPLEMENT 

What little town by river or sea shore, 
Or mountain-built with peaceful citadel, 
Is emptied of this folk, this pious morn ? 1 
And, little town, thy streets for evermore 
Will silent be ; and not a soul to tell 2 
Why 3 thou art desolate, can e'er return. 

O Attic shape ! Fair attitude ! with brede 4 

Of marble men and maidens overwrought, 
With forest branches and the trodden weed ; 

Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought 
As doth eternity : Cold Pastoral ! 

When old age shall 5 this generation waste, 
Thou shalt 6 remain, in midst of other woe 
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou say'st, 

" Beauty is truth, truth beauty," — that is all 7 
Ye know on earth, and all 7 ye need to know. 8 



XII 

HOME THOUGHTS FROM ABROAD 

Robert Browning 

Oh, 9 to be in England 

Now that 10 April 's there, 

And n whoever 12 wakes in England 

Sees, some morning, 1 unaware, 13 

That the lowest boughs and the brushwood sheaf 

Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf, 14 

While 15 the chaffinch sings on the orchard bough 

In England — now ! 

1 § 111. 2 Purpose, with return (§ 314, 2). 3 § 429. 4 = embroidery, 
ornament. 5 § 297. 6 Shall (instead of will) may be used in the second 

and third person in a prophecy. 7 § 150. 8 § 314, 1. 9 § 311. 10 Now 
that introduces a clause of time (modifying to be in England), with a sug- 
gestion of cause (§§ 382, 384). u Supply now that: ™ § 157. 13 Adverb 
(= unexpectedly) (§ 190). 14 Adjective phrase used as a complement (predi- 
cate adjective) ; see § 457, 4, examples 8-12. is The while-cl&use modifies are 
(in tiny leaf). 



INCIDENT OF THE FRENCH CAMP xxiii 

And x after April, when May follows, 

And the whitethroat builds, and all the swallows ! 2 

Hark, where 3 my blossomed pear-tree in the hedge 

Leans to the field and scatters on the clover 

Blossoms and dewdrops j — at the bent spray's edge — 

That 's the wise thrush ; he sings each song twice 4 over, 5 

Lest 6 you should think 7 he never could recapture 

The first fine careless rapture ! 

And though the fields look rough 8 with hoary dew, 

All will be gay when noontide wakes anew 

The buttercups, the little children's dower 

— Far brighter than this gaudy melon-flower ! 9 

XIII 

INCIDENT OF THE FRENCH CAMP 

Robert Browning 

You know, 7 we French stormed Ratisbon : 

A mile 10 or so away, 
On a little mound, Napoleon 

Stood on our storming n day ; 
With neck out-thrust, you fancy how, 12 

Legs wide, arms locked behind, 13 
As if 14 to balance 15 the prone brow 

Oppressive with its mind. 

Just as 16 perhaps he mused, 17 " My plans 

That soar, to earth may fall, 
Let 18 once my army-leader Lannes 

Waver at yonder wall," — 

1 The adverbial phrase after April modifies to be (in England) in line 1. It 
is connected by and with the former modifiers : thus, Oh, to be in England 
now that April's there (etc.) "and" after April. 2 Supply build (§211). 

3 The clause modifies hark, indicating the place toward which the listening 
should be directed. * §§ 202, 205. s Adverb (§ 350). 6 §§ 297, 392. 

7 § 484. 8 § 172. 9 § 416. i° § 111. n § 342. 12 § 466. Supply he stood 
(§ 429). is § 350. 14 That is, as if they [the arms] were locked behind to 

balance etc. (§§356, 414). is § 396. is §358. Just is an adverb modify- 
ing as (§ 190). 17 § 417, and footnote. is § 316. The clause let . . . wall is 
equivalent to an adverbial clause of condition (if, etc.) (§ 404). 



xxiv SUPPLEMENT 

Out 'twixt the battery-smokes there x flew 

A rider, bound on bound 2 
Full-galloping 3 ; nor 4 bridle drew 

Until he reached the mound. 

Then off there 5 flung 6 in smiling joy, 

And held himself erect 
By just his horse's mane, a boy : 

You hardly could suspect 7 — 
(So tight he kept his lips compressed 8 

Scarce 9 any blood came through) 
You looked twice 10 ere you saw u his breast 

Was all but 12 shot in two. 

" Well," 13 cried he, " Emperor, by God's grace 

We've got you 14 Ratisbon ! 
The Marshal 's in the market-place, 

And you'll be there anon 
To see 15 your flag-bird flap 16 his vans 17 

Where I, to 18 heart's desire, 
Perched him ! " The chief's eye flashed ; his plans 

Soared up again like fire. 19 

The chief's eye flashed ; but presently 

Softened itself, as sheathes 
A film the mother-eagle's eye 

When her bruised eaglet breathes : 

i § 192. 2 § in. s The poet has compounded the adverb full (§ 190) with 
the participle galloping. Grammatically galloping belongs to rider and full 
modifies galloping. The compound was suggested, no doubt, by the phrase at 
full gallop, to which it is logically equivalent. 4 The conjunction nor con- 

nects the two verbs of the compound predicate (§ 37) — flew, drew. 5 = at the 
mound. The subject of flung is boy, two lines below. Note inverted order. 
6 Used absolutely (§ 211). We need not supply himself. 7 There is no object 
for this verb. The sentence is broken by the parenthesis and is never finished, 
a new sentence beginning with You looked. 8 § 101. 9 § 190. 10 §§ 202, 
205. ll § 484. l 2 The adverbial phrase all but has the meaning of the 

adverb almost or nearly and modifies the adverbial phrase in tivo. 13 § 365. 
14 § 108. is § 396. 16 § 313. iz vans = b r0 ad wings (§ 306). u to = 
according to (§347). 19 §109; like is an adverb here. 



MACBETH xxv 

' You're wounded ! " w Nay," the soldier's pride 

Touched * to the quick, he said : 
1 I'm killed, sire ! " And his chief beside, 

Smiling the boy fell dead. 2 



XIV 

FROM SHAKSPERE'S "MACBETH" 

Macbeth. If it 3 were done 4 when 't is done, then 't 5 were well 6 
It were 7 done quickly. If 8 the assassination 
Could trammel up the consequence, 9 and catch 
With his surcease 10 success ; that u but' 12 this blow 
Might be the be-all 13 and the end-all 13 here, 
But 12 here, upon this bank and shoal of time, 
We'd jump 14 the life to come. 15 But in these cases 
We still 16 have judgment here ; that 11 we but 12 teach 
Bloody instructions, which, being taught, 17 return 
To plague 18 the inventor. This even-handed justice 
Commends 19 the ingredients of our poison'd chalice 
To our own lips. He 's 20 here in double trust : 
First, 21 as 22 I am his kinsman and his subject, 
Strong both 23 against the deed ; then, 21 as 24 his host, 

1 §§ 335-336. 2 § 170, 3 ; cf . § 212. 3 The antecedent of it, though vividly 
present to the speaker's mind, is not mentioned until the next sentence. 
4 Present condition contrary to fact (§409) ; the conclusion is 'twere icell etc. 
(§ 278). 5 § 380. 6 § 357. 7 T n modern prose, should be (§§ 281, 300). 

8 §409. 9 = the sequel', that is, capture {the future) as in a trammel, or net; 
success also means the sequel, that which may follow, and thus is synonymous 
with consequence. 10 That is, his {Duncan's) death. n = so that (§ 393). 
12 — ordy. 13 A noun. 14 = risk. 15 § 312. 16 = alio ays. 17 = having 
been taught (§ 326). The participle belongs to which (§ 329), but has the effect 
of a clause of time {when they have been taught) modifying return (§382). 
18 §314, 2. 19 =puts, applies. 20 The antecedent of he is Duncan, men- 
tioned four lines below (cf. note 3). 21 First and then ( = secondly) are 
adverbs modifying the phrase in double trust. 22 As — in that, by virtue of 
the fact that. The clause modifies in double trust. 23 = both being strong 
(§§ 336-337). Grammatically both refers to kinsman and subject, but logically 
it refers to the abstract ideas kinship and loyalty (implied in these nouns). 
24 Supply I am and see note 22. 



xxvi SUPPLEMENT 

Who should l against his murtherer shut the door, 

Not bear the knife myself. 2 Besides, this Duncan 

Hath borne his faculties 3 so meek, 4 hath been 

So clear 5 in his great office, that 6 his virtues 

Will plead like 7 angels trumpet-tongu'd against 

The deep damnation of his taking-off ; 8 

And Pity, like 9 a naked new-born babe, 7 

Striding 10 the blast, or heaven's cherubin, hors'd 

Upon the sightless u couriers of the air, 

Shall 12 blow the horrid deed in 13 every eye, 

That 14 tears shall 12 drown the wind. I have no spur 

To prick 15 the sides of my intent, but only 

Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself 16 

And falls on the other side. 



XV 

FROM SHAKSPEKE'S "HAMLET" 

Hamlet. How 17 all occasions do 18 inform against me,. 
And spur my dull revenge ! What is a man, 
If his chief good and market of his time 19 
Be 20 but to sleep 21 and feed 21 ? A beast, no more. 22 
Sure 23 He that made us with such large discourse, 24 
Looking before and after, gave us not 

i § 288. 2 § 126, 1. » = powers, authority. 4 § 190 (in prose, meekly). 
6 = blameless. 6 §§391, 393. 7 §109. 8 His is a good example of the 
genitive (possessive) indicating the object of an action (the so-called objec- 
tive genitive): his taking-off is "the act which takes him off" (that is, kills 
him). 9 An adjective (= in the form of). 10 = riding upon. n = invisible. 
12 Used to express prophecy. 13 = into. 14 = so that (§ 393). 15 § 312. 
16 § 126, 2. 17 Interrogative adverb introducing an exclamatory sentence 

(§ 4, 4). is § 255. The so-called emphatic form is common in older English, 
in all kinds of sentences, without the effect of emphasis. 19 = that for 

ivhich he sells his time, the use he makes of his life. 20 The subjunctive in 

the present condition brings out the hypothetical nature of the idea (as a 
supposed case merely) more strongly than the ordinary indicative (§408). 
21 § 308. 22 An elliptical answer to the preceding question : [He is] a beast. 
More is appositive to beast. ^ § 190 (in prose, surely) ; § 466. 24 --power 
of reason. 



HAMLET xxvii 

That capability and godlike reason 

To fust l in us unus'd. Now, whether 2 it be 

Bestial oblivion, 3 or some craven 4 scruple 

Of 5 thinking too precisely on the event, 6 — 

A thought which, quarter'd, hath but one part wisdom 7 

And ever three parts coward, — I do not know 

Why 8 yet I live to say, 9 " This thing 's to do, 1 " 10 

Sith u I have cause and will and strength and means 

To do 't. 12 Examples gross 13 as earth 14 exhort me ; 

Witness 15 this army of such mass and charge, 16 

Led by a delicate and tender prince, 

Whose spirit with divine ambition pufPd 17 

Makes mouths at 18 the invisible event, 19 

Exposing what 20 is mortal and unsure 

To all that fortune, death, and danger dare,' 21 

Even for an egg-shell. Rightly to be 22 great 

Is not 23 to stir 22 without great argument, 24 

But greatly to find quarrel 25 in a straw 26 

When honor 's at the stake. How stand I then 27 

That have a father kill'd, 28 a mother stain'd, 28 

Excitements of my reason and my blood, 

And let all sleep, 29 while to my shame I see 

The imminent death of twenty thousand men 

That for a fantasy 30 and trick of fame 31 

Go to their graves like beds, 32 fight for a plot 

i = to groiv musty (§ 314, 2). 2 §§ 402, 359. 3 =forgetfulness. * An 
adjective. $Of = consisting in. 6 = the outcome, the issue. 7 Wisdom 
is used as an appositive to part (instead of the adjective phrase of wisdom). 
Do not supply of. 8 § 429. 9 Result (§ 396). i° The infinitive to do 

(=for doing = unaccomplished) is used as a complement (predicate adjec- 
tive); see §457,4, end. Note that the so-called active infinitive (to do) 
may sometimes be identical in meaning with the passive (to be done). 
11 = since (causal). 12 §312. 1S = obvious, palpable. 14 §416. 15 Witness 
this army is an exhortation (let this army testify [to the fact that I have 
examples etc.]) ; cf . § 273. Witness is a subjunctive and army is its subject. 
16 = cost. 1T —puff'd up, exalted. 18 = scorns, derides. 19 = outcome. 
20 § 155. 21 Here used with a cognate object (the relative pronoun that) 
(§ 110). Do not supply to do. 22 § 308. ^ The adverb not modifies to stir. 
24 = cause (for resentful action). 2 ^ = a cause for quarrel. 26 = a mere 
trifle. * § 353. 2 « § 329. 29 § 316. so _ a fancy, a mere notion. &=a 
trivial point of reputation. 32 § 109. The adverbial phrase like beds (= as if 
to their beds) modifies go. 



xxviii SUPPLEMENT 

Whereon the numbers cannot try the cause, 1 
Which is not tomb enough and continent 2 
To hide 3 the slain 4 ? O, from this time forth, 5 
My thoughts be bloody, or be nothing 6 worth ! 

1 That is, a piece of ground that is not large enough to hold the armies 
that fight for its possession. 2 = container, receptacle. 3 Result (§ 396) ; 
the infinitive modifies the adjective enough (§ 312). 4 The past participle 

(being an adjective in its nature), when preceded by the, may be used as a 
plural noun (§ 175). 5 The exclamatory sentence expresses a resolution. The 
subjunctive (be) is the same as that used in prayers and exhortations (§§270, 
273). 6 Adverbial objective modifying the adjective loorth (§ 111). 



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